LIBRARY  OF  THE  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 


PRINCETON,  N.J. 

H 

Purchased  by  the 
Mary  Cheves  Dulles  Fund 


I 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/unknownpeopleinuOOgrub 


I 


Women  Ready  for  the  “Puphek”  Dance  of  the  “Yanmana”  Feast 

This  particular  dance  takes  its  name  from  the  bunches  of  deer  hoofs  attached  to  the  long 
canes.  When  struck  on  the  ground  they  produce  a loud  jangle,  to  which  the  dancers, 
numbering  from  ten  to  twenty,  keep  step. 


0 1911 
SEMj*) 

in  an  Unknown  Land 

AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  LIFE  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE 
LENGUA  INDIANS  OF  THE  PARAGUAYAN  CHACO, 

WITH  ADVENTURES  AND  EXPERIENCES  MET 
WITH  DURING  TWENTY  YEARS’  PIONEERING 
AND  EXPLORATION  AMONGST  THEM 


f*  MAYS 
V a ^ ^ , 

An  Unknown  PeopS1 


BY 

W.  BARBROOKE  GRUBB 

“COMISARIO  GENERAL  DEL  CHACO  Y PAC1FICAD0R  DE  LOS  INDIOS  ” 
PIONEER  & EXPLORER  OF  THE  CHACO 


EDITED  3Y 

H.  T.  MORREY  JONES,  M.A.  (Oxon) 


WITH  60  ILLUSTRATIONS  & A MAP 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

LONDON  : SEELEY  S?  CO.  LIMITED 
1 9 1 1 


TO 

HIM  WHO  GAVE 
ME  MY  MARCHING  ORDERS 

THE  RIGHT  REV.  WAITE  H.  STIRLING,  D.D., 

First  Bishop  of  the  Falkland  Isles, 

N REMEMBRANCE  OF  WORDS  OF  CHEER,  SOUND  ADVICE, 
AND  WELCOME  VISITS  WHEN  ALONE 


IN  THE  WILDS 


PREFACE 


It  is  prophesied  that  during  the  next  decade  the  attention  ot 
the  world  will  be  turned  to  South  America  as  markedly  as  it 
has  been  directed  to  the  Far  East  in  this.  There  are  un- 
doubtedly substantial  grounds  for  such  a forecast.  The  natural 
wealth  of  the  Continent  is  unquestioned,  and  rapid  develop- 
ments have  taken  place  of  recent  years.  But  with  few  excep- 
tions— in  particular,  that  of  the  linking  of  the  east  and  west 
coasts  by  the  completion  of  the  Trans-Andine  Railway— these 
developments  are  confined  to  the  coast-line  of  the  Continent. 
Though  some  of  its  mighty  rivers  are  navigable  for  thousands 
of  miles,  yet  much  of  the  interior  is  still  shrouded  in  mystery. 
Exploring  expeditions  have  had  to  encounter  impassable  and 
malarial  swamps,  impenetrable  forests,  unnavigable  rivers,  and 
hostile  tribes  of  Indians,  and  have  for  the  most  part  ended  in 
disaster. 

Strange  rumours  are  still  current  as  to  the  nature  and  in- 
habitants of  the  huge  interior  region  known  as  the  Chaco,  which 
is  the  subject  of  this  volume.  Its  name  has  been  interpreted 
as  meaning  “ a hiding-place,”  which,  though  a false  etymology, 
is  nevertheless  a true  description  of  this  unknown  land. 

In  the  year  1889  the  Church  of  England  South  American 
Missionary  Society  began  a work  in  the  Paraguayan  Chaco, 
and  in  the  following  pages  the  pioneer  missionary  and  explorer 
recounts  his  experiences  and  adventures,  and  gives  the  results 
of  studies  and  researches  covering  a period  of  twenty  years, 
during  which  he  lived  in  the  heart  of  the  Indian  fastnesses 
among  the  tribe  of  the  Lenguas.  Barbrooke  Grubb  may  be 
a name  little  known  at  home,  but  in  South  America  he  is 

vii 


PREFACE 

recognized  as  the  greatest  living  authority  on  the  Indians  of 
the  Chaco. 

During  his  last  furlough  he  supplied  me  with  a fund  of  in- 
formation which  I wrote  down  from  his  dictation,  and,  guided 
by  the  knowledge  which  I had  myself  gained  during  a few  years 
in  the  Chaco,  I have  ventured  to  edit  the  present  volume. 

The  following  narrative  deals  almost  exclusively  with  the 
early  years  of  Grubb’s  life  among  the  Lenguas.  His  extra- 
ordinary adventures  and  perilous  experiences  are  fully  described, 
and  will,  I think,  engage  the  attention  of  every  reader.  In 
particular,  the  remarkable  narrative  of  the  attempt  upon  his 
life,  when  he  was  left  for  dead,  and  narrowly  escaped  being 
buried  alive;  and  all  the  incidents  of  his  subsequent  rescue 
show  in  a strange  way  the  workings  of  the  Indian  mind  and 
character,  as  well  as  Grubb’s  courage  and  powers  of  endurance. 
His  recovery  from  his  wound  under  such  trying  circumstances 
was  considered  so  extraordinary  that  Dr.  O’Connor,  the  eminent 
surgeon  of  the  Buenos  Aires  British  Hospital,  who  operated  on 
him,  gave  him  a letter  of  introduction  to  Sir  Frederick  Treves, 
saying,  “ Put  your  surgical  ear  to  his  chest.”  The  letter,  how- 
ever, was  never  presented,  as  Grubb  returned  immediately  to 
the  Chaco. 

The  full  account  here  given  of  primitive  life  and  customs, 
Indian  mythology,  superstitions,  and  witchcraft,  with  all  their 
attendant  barbarities,  will  convey  some  idea  of  the  difficulties 
encountered  in  the  attempt  to  form  such  a people  into  a civilized 
community  and  a Christian  Church.  Frequent  reference  is  made 
in  the  following  pages  to  the  most  important  of  the  older 
writings  on  the  Chaco — “ An  Account  of  the  Abiponi  Indians,” 
by  Dobrizhoffer,  a Jesuit  Father — whose  descriptions,  although 
written  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  correspond  closely  with 
observations  made  in  the  present  day,  a remarkable  proof  of  the 
stagnant  condition  of  the  Chaco  tribes  and  of  the  persistence 
of  their  customs  and  deep-seated  superstitions. 

The  opening  up  of  a large  and  practically  unknown  country, 
which  has  been  an  indirect  result  of  the  Mission,  will  seem 
important  to  those  who  watch  with  serious  interest  the  gradual 

viii 


PREFACE 


reclamation  of  the  earth’s  waste  places.  To-day  it  is  safe  for 
the  white  man  to  traverse  some  two  hundred  miles  in  a direct 
course  west  of  the  River  Paraguay,  over  roads  cut  by  the 
missionaries  and  other  large  areas  within  the  Mission  sphere ; 
whereas  formerly  men  who  had  acquired  lands  within  the  Chaco 
scarcely  dared  even  to  inspect  them,  and  carefully  avoided  all 
footmarks  or  other  signs  of  Indians.  Where  formerly  ranchers 
hesitated  to  stock  their  land,  for  fear  of  Indian  raids,  thousands 
of  cattle  may  be  found  to-day  in  well-fenced  paddocks,  tended 
by  Indians  who  have  been  trained  in  the  Mission  and  taught 
many  useful  crafts.  The  Roman  Catholic  Government  of 
Paraguay  has  fully  recognized  the  value  of  the  work  of  this 
Protestant  Mission,  and  has  conferred  on  the  author  of  this 
volume  the  title  of  “ Pacificator  of  the  Indians.”  It  has  also 
accepted  the  missionaries’  geographical  notes  as  the  basis  of  an 
official  map  of  the  region. 

The  reader  who  is  in  sympathy  with  the  definite  work  of 
Christian  Missions  will  see  the  practical  methods  which  have 
been  adopted  in  breaking  down  old  beliefs  and  witchcraft,  and 
the  ways  in  which  medical  work  and  certain  branches  of  educa- 
tion and  training  have  been  steps  to  the  reception  of  Christianity ; 
but  another  volume  by  the  same  author  which  is  in  preparation 
will  describe  more  fully  the  actual  spiritual  development  of  the 
Lenguas. 

Not  the  least  formidable  task  in  the  building  up  of  these 
primitive  people  has  been  the  study  and  reduction  to  writing 
of  their  very  difficult  language,  a task  so  laborious  that  it  was 
eight  years  before  any  systematic  work  could  be  undertaken. 
Mr.  R.  J.  Hunt  has  been  almost  entirely  responsible  for  the 
compiling  of  a large  dictionary  and  for  all  the  translation  work, 
having  devoted  fifteen  years  to  the  study  of  the  peculiar  and 
comprehensive  language  of  the  Lenguas,  and  to  him  I am  in- 
debted for  the  account  of  it  which  appears  in  Appendix  III. 
With  these  valuable  aids  to  teaching,  the  spiritual  development 
has  been  very  marked  during  the  last  decade.  The  work  has  been 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  Rev.  P.  R.  Turner  in  the  field 
and  of  the  two  first  Bishops  of  the  Falkland  Isles  as  visitors. 


IX 


PREFACE 


Special  mention  should  be  made  of  Mr.  Andrew  Pride,  who 
has  worked  side  by  side  with  the  author  for  seventeen  years,  and 
has  taken  an  important  part  in  all  that  fell  to  the  lot  of  a 
pioneer.  To  him  I am  indebted  for  most  of  the  photographs 
which  illustrate  this  volume. 

Professor  Graham  Kerr  and  Dr.  W.  E.  Agar,  both  of  Glasgow 
University,  who  spent  long  periods  at  or  near  the  Mission 
station  engaged  in  scientific  research,  have  most  kindly  allowed 
me  to  cull  from  their  writings  the  passages  on  the  flora  and 
fauna  of  the  Chaco  which  appear  in  Appendix  II. 

My  warmest  thanks  are  due  to  othei-s  who  have  aided  me  in 
editing  this  work,  especially  to  my  old  college  friend,  Mr.  W. 
St.  David  Jenkins,  for  his  valuable  help  in  revising  the  manu- 
script, and  to  the  Librarian  of  the  British  Museum  for  the 
opportunities  afforded  of  consulting  books  of  reference. 

The  author’s  profits  from  the  sale  of  this  volume  will  be 
devoted  to  the  support  of  the  Society’s  Mission,  in  which  it  is 
my  earnest  hope  that  many  readers  may  come  to  take  a deep 
interest. 

H.  T.  MORREY  JOXES 


December,  1910 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface  --------  vii 


CHAPTER  I 
Rumours 

Contrasts — Indian  atrocities — A horned  race — Pigmies — The  Chaco  17 

CHAPTER  II 

Dangers  of  Entrance 

Exploring  parties  massacred — Captives — Search  for  Ibareta— Indian 
hostility — Superstitious  fears — Attitude  to  be  adopted — Hostility 
of  wizards — Their  powers  challenged  - - - - 22 

CHAPTER  III 
Into  the  Unknown 

Riacho  Fernandez — Rough  fare — The  interior — First  journey — 
Treachery  of  guides — The  first  village — Sign  language — Air  of 
authority — The  night  watch — Bargaining  for  guides  - - 31 

CHAPTER  IV 
Eari/y  Experiences 

Tour  in  Paraguay — Tracking  Indian  looters— Compensation  paid — 
“Alligator  stomach ’’—Indian  cunning — Report  of  thefts — Fire 
at  Neantamama — Removal  to  Thlagnasinkinmith — Escape  from 
poisoning — Indian  defiance — Foreign  liquor — The  Evil  Eye — 
Witch-doctors’  plans  - - - - - - 36 

CHAPTER  V 

Origin  of  the  Chaco  Tribes 

Padre  Lozano — Peruvian  fugitives — Meaning  of  word  “Chaco” — 

Inca  connection — “Cities  of  the  dead” — Hidden  treasure — The 
Imlah  - - - - - - - -49 

CHAPTER  VI 
Primitive  Indian  Life 

An  Indian  village— Rude  shelters — Scene  at  sunset— Swamp  travel — 

A smallpox  scene — The  spirit-world— Nomadic  life — Preparations 
for  the  night — Indian  dogs—  Insect  life — Methods  of  illumination  55 

CHAPTER  VII 
Arts  and  Industries 

Hindrances  to  industry — Blanket-making — String — Preparation  of 
skins  — Feather  ornaments  — Shells  — Necklaces  — Ear-discs — 
Pottery — Tobacco — Fire  by  friction — Gourds — Musical  instru- 
ments— Diary  sticks — Weapons—  Gardening— House-building 

xi 


65 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Hunting 

PAOK 

Denizens  of  the  swamp  — Fishing  — Water-snakes  — Alligators — 
Dangers — Stalking — The  jabiru — The  ostrich — Indians  as  mimics 
— The  jaguar — An  adventure  - - - - - 80 

CHAPTER  IX 
Travel 

The  first  bullock  cart — A storm — Floods — A river-crossing — Indian 
mode  of  travel — Procuring  water  during  drought — Tradition  of 
the  origin  of  fire — Thirst — A pocket  compass — An  unnatural  act — 

A feast — A dust-storm  - - - - - - 89 


CHAPTER  X 
War 

The  Paraguayan  War — The  Lenguas  and  Kisapang — Causes  of  tribal 
war  — Preliminaries  — Spies  - Ambuscades  Strategy  — The 
wounded  — An  Indian  account  -----  105 

CHAPTER  XI 
Religion 

Popular  opinion— Symbolism— The  Creation — The  Egyptian  Scarabeus 
— Immortality  of  the  soul — The  future  life  - - - 111 

CHAPTER  XII 
Shade-Land 

fhe  ki/yikhama  — Their  appearance  and  powers  — The  aphangak — 
Possession — The  soul— An  uncanny  experience — The  scattering 
of  ashes — Deceased  ancestors — Future  abode  of  the  soul — Spirits 
of  the  lower  creation  - - - - - -118 


CHAPTER  XIII 
Dreams 

Interpretations — A sick  child— Souls  in  dreamland — Influence  of 
dreams — Nocturnal  sounds — Superstition — An  uneasy  conscience 
— Dangers  of  soul-wandering  ----,-  127 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Superstition 

The  south  wind — Gum  boils  and  fat — Milk — The  sensitive  plant — 
Amulets— Storms — The  Milky  Way — Whirlwinds- — The  Pleiades 
— “Grandfather  the  Devil ” — Mirages — The  Rainbow — Horse 
spirit — Whispering  in  the  woods — Infanticide — Superstition  and 
Christianity  -------  136 

CHAPTER  XV 
Wizards  and  Witchcraft 

A wizard’s  office — His  training — Hypnotism — Weather  prophecies — 
Laying  ghosts — Possession  by  ki/yikhama — “ Blue  blanket” — 

W izards  and  haemorrhage  — Ejecting  insects  — Fish-bones  — A 

xii 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

“needless”  epidemic — A poisonous  root— Charmed  guns — The 
witch-beetle — Instantaneous  pumpkin-growing — Conjuring  tricks 
— Sorceries — Medical  knowledge  -----  145 

CHAPTER  XVI 
Burial  Rites 

A burial  scene — The  (lying  abandoned — Last  rites — Mutilation- 
Formalities  at  the  grave — A perilous  experience  at  Thlagwakhe — 
Purification  ceremonial — Mourning — Execution  of  a murderer — 
Premature  burial  -------  160 


CHAPTER  XVII 

Rescue  of  a Child 

A woman’s  burial — Her  infant  rescued  from  burial  alive — An  awkward 
predicament — The  ghost  of  the  mother — An  outcast — Difficulties 
of  procuring  nourishment — A long  journey — Saved  - - 171 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
Feasts 

The  Yanmana — The  Wainkya — The  Kyaiya — The  marriage  feast — 
Preparations  for  a Kyaiya — Arrival  of  the  guests — The  chant — 

Food  ceremonials — Mirth  and  conversation — Intoxication— The 
Mailing — A sick  dirge — After  effects — Chaco  etiquette  - - 177 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Indian  Socialism 

A summary  — Thriftlessness  — Inadequate  dwellings  — Laziness- 

Selfishness— Sociability— The  communal  system— Then  and  now-  188 

CHAPTER  XX 
General  Characteristics 

Conservatism  — H umour  — Friendship  — Trust  — Patience  — Self-con- 
trol— Courage — Jealousy  ------  195 

CHAPTER  XXI 
Morals 

Drunkenness  — Madness  — Untruthfulness  — Scandal  — Guile  meets 
guile  — H onesty  — Rese rvation — Generous  acti ons  — Grief  — Un- 
selfishness— Politeness — Marriage  laws — Monogamy — Laxity  of 
morals — Polygamy — Polyandry  -----  204 

CHAPTER  XXII 
System  of  Dealing  with  Indians 

Full-grown  children — The  missionary’s  task — His  environment — 

Example  and  precept— Tests  of  courage — A cunning  device  - 217 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
Teacher  and  Pupil 

Insular  conceit — Sympathy— First-fruits— Cause  and  effect — Independ- 
ence 224 

xiii 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXIV 
Infanticide  and  Other  Evils 

PAGE 

Reasons  for  infanticide — Extenuating  circumstances — Treatment  of  a 
child  - murderer  — Waikthlatingmangyalwa  — Deceptions  — An 
unexpected  visit — Medical  treatment — Language  difficulties — The 
early  Church  -------  232 

CHAPTER  XXV 

A Murderous  Attack 

l’oit — An  advance  agent — Misappropriation — Thefts — A start  for  the 
West — Poit  as  guide — Search  for  cattle — The  River  Monte  Lindo 
— Manoeuvring — Shot  in  the  back  ....  244 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
In  Danger  of  Burial  Alive 

Bathing  the  wound — The  beaten  track — Rescued — A night  of  horror 
— Visitors — A messenger — Preparations  for  premature  burial — 

Slow  progress — News  of  Poit — Suspicions — Welcome  refresh- 
ment— Arrival  of  relief  party — Christmas  Day — Home — Fears  of 
a rising — An  uncanny  presence— In  hospital  - - - 254 

CHAPTER  XXVII 
I’oit’s  Defence  and  Fate 

Public  opinion— Startling  news — The  execution — A deep  sensation  — 

A review — A dream — The  stolen  gun — The  jaguar  story — The 
only  flaw  --------  239 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 
Final  Struggle  of  the  Witch-Doctors 

Candidates  for  Baptism—  Death  from  snake-bite — Witch-doctors’  plot 
— Poisoning — Death  of  Andrew — Summoning  of  ringleaders — 
Punishment — Philip’s  address  -----  278 

CHAPTER  XXIX 
’Twixt  Old  and  New 

Effects  of  education — The  transition  stage — Attractions  of  civilization 

— Partial  degeneration  ------  289 

CHAPTER  XXX 
Christianity  versus  Heathenism 

Early  conditions — Remarkable  changes — Estancias — T rade — Settle- 
ment— Industrial  training — School  — Hospital  — Government — 


The  Christian  Church  ------  293 

APPENDIX 

I.  The  Chaco,  its  Tribes,  Expeditions  and  Discoveries-  - 301 
11.  Geological  Structure,  Climate,  Fauna  and  Flora  of  the 

Chaco  --------  305 

III.  Language  --------  318 

IV.  Outside  Testimony  ------  322 

Index  --------  328 

xiv 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

w omen  Ready  for  the  “ Puphek  ” Dance  - Frontispiece 

A Search  Expedition  - - - - - 24 

A Lengua  Witch-Doctor  - - - - - - 46 

- Lengua  Boys  - - - - - - - - 52 

— -Lengua  Villages  - - - - - - - 56 

Method  of  Conveying  Goods  across  a Swamp  - - 58 

Locusts  ....  62 

A Decorated  Wooden  Whistle  - - - - - 64 

Section  of  a Lengua  Woollen  Blanket  - - - 66 

Blanket-weaving  - - - - - - - 66 

Lengua  Woman  Spinning  Wool  for  a Blanket  - - 68 

Lengua  Girls  - - - - - - -70 

A Lengua  Potter  - - - - - - -72 

Lengua  Pottery  - - - - - - -72 

Lengua  Pottery  .......  74 

Four  Generations  - - - - - - - 74 

Rubbings  taken  from  an  Indian’s  Engravings  on  a Gourd  - 76 

Indian  Engraving  - - - - - - -76 

Lengua  Pottery  -------  78 

Clay  Water  Bottle  - - - - - - 78 

A Bottle-trunk  Tree  - - - - - 82 

A Lengua  Roadway  Sign  - - - - - - 82 

A Rattle-snake  in  the  Grass  - - - - - 82 

The  Rattle  of  the  Rattle-snake  - - - - 82 

A Lengua  Canoe  - - - - - - - 84 

Indian  Stalker  Disguised  as  a Clump  of  Foliage  - - 86 

An  Indian  Extracting  Honey  from  a Hole  in  a Tree  • 96 


xv 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Procuring  Fire  by  Friction 

A Group  of  Lenguas 

Suhin  Pipe  of  Carved  Wood 

A Lengua  Witch-Doctor 

In  the  Forest  ... 

Lengua  Method  of  Producing  Fire 

Arrows  .... 

— Ar  “Wainkya”  Feast 
The  “Sowalach” 

Wrestling  Contests  - - - 

Women  Dancers  at  a “ Yanmana  ” 
Preparing  for  a “ Kyaiya  ” Feast 
Suhin  Pipe  of  Carved  Wood 
Toothli  Clay  Vessel 
An  Old  Woman  of  the  North-West 
Lengua  Women 
Lengua  Fish-Trap 
A Bird’s  Nest  ... 

A Secret  Still  ... 

W.  Barbrooke  Grubb 

PoIT  - 

Mechi  .... 

Kyamapsithyo  ... 

A Lengua  Doll 
One-Stringf.d  Fiddle 
A Typical  “Palmar”  Scene 


- 98 

- 102 

- 117 

- 132 

- 132 

- 135 

- 176 
- 178 
- 180 
- 180 
- 182 

- 184 

- 194 

- 203 

Clan  - - - 206 

- 214 

- 231 

- 238 

- 238 

- 246 

- 250 

- 250 

- 262 
- 268 
- 288 
- 306 


xvi 


AN  UNKNOWN  PEOPLE  IN  AN 
UNKNOWN  LAND 


CHAPTER  I 
RUMOURS 

The  countries  lying  on  the  opposite  banks  of  the  great  River 
Paraguay  for  some  fourteen  hundred  miles  of  its  course,  running 
between  the  regions  of  Paraguay  proper  on  the  east  and  the 
Chaco  on  the  west,  present  a contrast  which  it  would  be  difficult 
to  equal  anywhere  in  the  world. 

At  night  on  the  Chaco  bank  may  be  seen  the  half-naked 
forms  of  Indians  as  they  move  to  and  fro  in  the  flickering  light 
of  their  camp-fires  which  but  dimly  illuminate  their  rude 
shelters,  standing  in  a clearing  in  the  dark  forest  which  forms  a 
background.  The  painted  faces  and  plumed  heads  of  these 
savages  enhance  the  weirdness  of  the  scene.  The  sounds  which 
greet  the  ear  are  equally  barbarous.  A low  droning  chant 
may  be  heard,  accompanied  by  the  rattle  of  gourds,  and  broken 
only  too  often  by  a shrill  cry  of  pain  when  a child,  perhaps, 
has  been  cruelly  murdered,  and  the  women’s  voices  are  raised 
in  lamentation.  Yet  from  this  bank  at  the  same  moment  may 
be  plainly  heard  the  loud  shriek  of  the  siren  of  a large  Brazilian 
passenger  steamer  as  she  nears  the  port  of  a Paraguayan  town 
just  across  the  river,  with  the  bright  rays  of  her  electric  light 
streaming  from  her  saloons  and  decks,  and  the  twinkling  lights 
of  the  town  dotted  along  the  opposite  bank  easily  distinguish- 
able in  the  distance. 

For  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  west  reaching  to  Bolivia,  to 

17  B 


RUMOURS 


the  north  as  far  as  Brazil,  and  southwards  to  the  settled 
provinces  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  there  stretches  a vast 
region  almost  wholly  given  over  to  barbarism.  As  it  was  when 
Juan  de  Solis  sailed  up  the  River  Plate  four  centuries  ago,  so  it 
was  when  I first  entered  the  land  of  this  unknown  people,  and 
so  it  is  in  great  part  to  this  very  day.  Dreadful  crimes  are 
daily  enacted  in  this  hidden  land  of  the  Chaco,  atrocities  which 
are  seldom  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  those  who  are  near 
neighbours. 

On  the  eastern  bank  of  the  River  Paraguay  we  find  large 
modern  cities  with  a civilization,  in  many  cases,  far  in  advance  of 
some  of  our  European  towns.  It  is  strange  indeed  that,  with 
only  a few  miles  dividing  them,  you  see  on  the  one  bank 
primitive  man  as  he  was  centuries  ago,  and  on  the  other  the 
highly  cultivated  European,  both  equally  ignorant  of  the  life  of 
the  other.  It  seems  almost  incredible  that,  for  nearly  four 
generations,  civilization  and  Christianity  have  sat  facing  bar- 
barism and  heathenism,  and  yet  have  stood  wholly  apart.  No 
great  and  impassable  barrier  has  divided  the  two ; on  the  con- 
trary, the  crossing  from  one  bank  to  the  other  is  simple,  and,  even 
under  the  most  unfavourable  circumstances,  a matter  of  only  a 
few  hours.  One  of  the  finest  lines  of  river  steamers  has  been 
plying  far  up  the  course  of  the  River  Paraguay  for  many  years, 
and  ever  since  the  power  of  Spain  was  planted  in  South  America 
communication  has  been  regularly  maintained  between  Europe 
and  these  regions. 

But  the  contrast  between  civilization  and  barbarism  is  not  the 
only  one  that  presents  itself.  The  two  sides  of  the  river  are 
physically  quite  as  different.  On  the  west  lies  an  almost  dead- 
level  plain,  covering  an  area  of  some  two  hundred  thousand 
square  miles,  while  on  the  east  hilly  and  undulating  country 
predominates.  The  great  western  plain  is  of  quite  a different 
geological  formation  from  that  of  the  eastern  lands,  consisting 
of  alluvial  mud  swept  down  in  past  ages  from  the  foot-hills  of 
the  Andes.  Not  a pebble  or  stone  can  be  found,  and  it  is  often 
in  flood-time  almost  converted  into  a great  shallow  lake  ; whereas 
the  eastern  region  is  in  most  parts  an  interesting  country,  with 

18 


RUMOURS 


hill  and  dale  and  clear  running  streams.  It  looks  as  if  this  low- 
lying  land  had  been,  at  some  remote  period,  the  bed  of  a great 
inland  sea,  the  shores  of  which  were  the  higher  coasts  of  Para- 
guay proper,  with  Brazil  on  the  east,  and  the  Bolivian  uplands 
on  the  west. 

It  was  to  this  strange  land  that  I was  sent  by  the  South 
American  Missionary  Society  in  the  year  1889.  A small 
Mission  had  already  been  begun  by  Adolpho  Henricksen  among 
the  Lengua  Indians  frequenting  the  Chaco  bank  of  the  River 
Paraguay,  and  on  his  death  I was  appointed  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
three  to  succeed  him.  For  the  last  twenty  years  I have  lived 
in  the  interior  of  the  Chaco  region,  at  first  alone  with  the 
Indians,  being  afterwards  joined  by  helpers  sent  out  by  the 
Society  ; but  the  contents  of  this  work  will  deal  mainly  with 
the  events  and  experiences  of  the  early  years  of  my  life  among 
some  of  the  Chaco  tribes,  and  among  the  Lenguas  in  particular. 

Long  before  I arrived  I had  heard,  in  conversation  with 
South  Americans  in  the  River  Plate,  numberless  rumours  of 
the  barbarous  peoples  inhabiting  the  Chaco,  and  curious  reports 
of  the  land  itself.  The  very  name  “ Chaco  ” was  mentioned 
by  many  whom  I met  in  accents  of  dread  and  horror.  Some 
reports  said  that  the  Indians  numbered  hundreds  of  thousands, 
that  they  were  fierce  and  warlike,  given  to  cannibalism,  and 
exceptionally  cruel  in  the  treatment  of  their  prisoners. 

It  is  well  known  that  during  the  early  Spanish  times  the 
Chaco  Indians  were  more  numerous  than  now,  and  that  they 
presented  an  almost  unconquerable  front  to  the  Spanish  invaders, 
not  so  much,  I suppose,  from  their  superiority  in  fighting  as 
from  the  impracticable  nature  of  their  country.  Previous  to 
the  Spanish  occupation  they  had  waged  war  for  generations 
with  the  Guarani  Indians  of  Paraguay,  and  as  the  population 
of  Paraguay  is  the  result  of  intermixture  between  the  Spanish 
and  Guarani  peoples,  this  may  account  in  some  measure  for  the 
uncomfortable  memories  that  the  latter  still  retain  of  the  Chaco 
Indians. 

An  Englishman  whom  I met  in  Uruguay,  and  who  had 
travelled  widely  in  many  parts  of  South  America,  honestly  did 

19 


RUMOURS 


his  best  to  dissuade  me  from  ever  thinking  of  going  among  the 
Chaco  tribes,  assuring  me  that  these  treacherous  savages  had 
been  known  to  haunt  the  steps  of  the  adventurous  explorer,  and, 
taking  advantage  of  him  while  he  slept,  to  creep  up  and  crush 
his  head  with  a stone.  This  gentleman  was  not  romancing,  but 
seriously  believed  what  he  said.  Where  the  Indians  found  the 
stone  he  did  not  explain,  and  it  is  quite  clear  he  was  not  aware 
even  of  the  formation  of  the  country,  stones  being  unobtainable 
there.  The  ti'ibes  were  reported  to  use  the  skulls  of  their 
enemies  as  drinking-cups,  and  with  these  to  catch  the  warm 
blood  that  flowed  from  the  wounds  of  their  victims.  It  was 
also  told  that  they  were  in  the  habit  of  burning  the  soles  of 
their  captives’  feet  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  escaping. 

The  accounts  of  the  various  tortures  which  they  were  supposed 
to  practise  upon  their  prisoners  were  many  and  barbarous  in 
the  extreme.  It  was  said  that  they  made  incisions  under  the 
two  great  pectoral  muscles,  and,  passing  a rope  through  the 
wounds,  mounted  their  horses  and  dragged  their  captive  behind 
them.  At  other  times,  cutting  open  the  breast,  they  tore  out 
the  still  beating  heart  of  their  victim.  But  to  recount  the 
many  tales  of  Indian  atrocities  would  only  nauseate  the  reader, 
and  what  I have  already  said  will  suffice  as  samples  of  the 
cruelties  they  were  reported  to  practise. 

A firm  belief  existed  that  the  Indians  bitterly  hated  any 
foreigner,  and  anyone  who  ventured  into  their  fastnesses  without 
a strongly  armed  band  would  have  been  regarded  as  a maniac 
and  a suicide,  no  white  man’s  life  being  considered  worth  more 
than  a few  hours’  purchase. 

There  was  reported  to  be  a large  and  populous  Indian  town 
in  the  interior,  and  this  was  the  general  belief  among  most  of 
the  Paraguayans.  Even  the  more  intelligent  and  critical 
believed  in  the  existence  of  large  villages,  inhabited  by 
thousands  of  Indians.  The  savage  inhabitants  were  reputed  to 
be  void  of  all  decency,  and  their  social  life  to  be  little  better 
than  that  of  animals.  Among  the  more  incredible  tales  were 
legends  of  a horned  race  inhabiting  the  interior.  A horn  was 
said  to  protrude  from  the  top  of  the  forehead,  as  in  the  fabled 

20 


RUMOURS 


unicorn.  Probably  the  custom  of  the  Indians  of  wearing  an 
upright  wool-bound  scalp-lock  gave  rise  to  this  tale.  But  even 
more  strange  was  the  story  of  a people  inhabiting  the  north 
whose  knee-joints  were  reversed,  giving  them  the  appearance  of 
the  ostrich,  so  that  when  they  knelt  their  feet  protruded  in 
front  of  them.  I afterwards  learnt  from  the  Indians  that, 
strange  to  say,  they  too  told  a similar  story,  with  this  addition — 
that  these  people  had  three  toes,  and  were  very  fleet  of  foot. 
There  were  accounts  of  a race  of  pigmies  inhabiting  the  forests 
of  the  west,  and  also  of  a tribe  of  giants. 

The  reports  about  the  nature  of  the  country  were  almost  as 
conflicting  as  those  referring  to  the  tribes.  Some  maintained 
that  it  was  a waterless  desert,  and  I have  myself  read  in  a 
school  geography  book  that  the  Chaco  was  supposed  to  be  a 
sandy  waste.  While  one  told  me  that  it  was  a densely  covered 
forest  region,  where  I might  travel  for  days  without  beholding 
the  sun,  another  would  say  that  it  was  a huge  swamp  or 
inland  sea. 

Some  imagined  the  Chaco  to  possess  great  mineral  wealth, 
saying  that  precious  stones  and  gold  were  to  be  found  in  the 
river-beds.  Strange  animals  and  huge  serpents  were  supposed 
to  abound  in  its  dark  forests.  “ Omne  ignotum  pro  magni- 
fico  est.” 

Most  of  these  rumours  I found  to  be  pure  fiction,  and  the 
others  greatly  distorted;  but  the  neighbouring  peoples,  while 
perhaps  not  believing  all  they  were  told,  undoubtedly  had  an 
undefined  dread  of  the  Chaco  and  its  inhabitants. 

Even  to-day  there  are  comparatively  few  who  know  the  truth 
of  this  mysterious  and  hidden  country,  and  of  the  Indian  tribes 
who  have  for  centuries  held  it  closed  to  the  European.  There- 
fore I may  justly  refer  to  this  region  as  an  unknown  land,  and 
with  still  more  justice  speak  of  its  inhabitants  as  an  unknown 
people. 


21 


CHAPTER  II 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 

The  ideas  entertained  of  the  Indians  being  such  as  I have 
described,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  were  held  in  dread.  Hen- 
ricksen,  the  founder  of  the  Paraguayan  Chaco  Mission,  when 
starting  on  his  journey  up  river,  was  strongly  urged  by  the 
Paraguayans  to  take  a military  guard  with  him  ; in  fact,  one 
was  offered,  but  this  he  firmly  refused.  It  is  true  that  he 
never  penetrated  into  the  Indian  country,  but,  had  he  been  able 
to  do  so,  I am  perfectly  certain  he  would  never  have  consented 
to  be  accompanied  by  an  armed  force. 

On  my  arrival  in  Paraguay,  in  1889,  I heard  many  more 
startling  rumours  than  those  already  instanced,  and  although 
common  sense  naturally  convinced  me  that  some  of  them  were 
false,  still,  I believed  a good  deal  more  than  there  was  any 
foundation  for.  It  took  me  some  years  to  discover  this,  and 
danger  believed  in  is  no  less  a nervous  strain  because  it  after- 
wards proves  unfounded.  But  apart  from  all  exaggerations, 
travelling  alone  in  the  early  years  amongst  these  savage  nomads 
was  fraught  with  considerable  danger,  not  so  much  on  account 
of  their  enmity  as  from  misunderstandings  on  both  sides,  and 
superstitious  fears  on  theirs. 

When  we  remember  that  Dr.  Creveaux,  the  French  explorer, 
and  his  party  were  massacred  in  recent  years  by  the  Indians, 
that  some  time  after  I had  been  in  the  country  Ibareta  and 
his  party  (with  the  exception  of  two)  were  annihilated,  and  that 
Boggiani  with  other  Europeans  and  South  Americans  have  been 
murdered,  it  is  clear  that  the  Indians  did  not  hesitate  to  kill 
foreigners  even  when  in  armed  parties. 

22 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 


It  was  reported  to  me  by  a man  of  authority  that  an  in- 
scription had  been  discovered  upon  a tree  intimating  that  two 
Frenchmen  were  being  held  in  cruel  bondage  by  the  Indians  a 
little  southward  of  the  scene  of  my  travels.  One  Paraguayan 
woman,  the  last  remaining  member  of  a party  of  prisoners  taken 
by  the  Indians  years  before,  was  liberated  while  I was  travelling 
in  the  country,  and  I discovered  afterwards  that  I had  myself 
spent  nights  with  the  Indians  in  the  near  vicinity  of  the  scene 
of  her  captivity. 

The  following  quotation  from  a letter  to  the  President  of 
Paraguay  by  a well-known  Government  Land  Surveyor,  who  was 
one  of  the  coolest  and  bravest  men  that  it  was  ever  my  fortune 
to  meet,  will  show  what  he  considered  necessary  precautions 
while  he  was  travelling  in  the  Chaco : “ I took  with  me  fifteen 
specially  selected  men,  all  armed  with  Remington  rifles  and 
revolvers,  and  I never  allowed  anyone  to  go  alone  to  seek  water 
or  to  explore  our  road.  We  always  rode  in  company  and  armed, 
and  never  went  far  from  our  encampment.  At  night  we  set 
sentinels,  and  slept  with  our  weapons  at  hand.  When  measuring, 
if  we  saw  smoke,  we  fell  back  on  our  main  body,  and  any  signs 
of  Indians  made  us  advance  with  redoubled  caution.  In  the 
Indian  village  of  the  Chief  called  Mechi,  near  the  Monte  Lindo 
River,  our  horses  disappeared,  and  while  a portion  of  our  party 
sought  them,  the  remainder,  who  were  in  camp,  were  sur- 
prised by  a company  of  naked  Indians,  painted  and  adorned 
with  feathers,  who  certainly  had  no  peaceable  or  friendly 
intentions.” 

From  the  Indians  I received  an  account  of  a strange  foreigner, 
evidently  a straggler  from  some  exploring  party,  who  had  arrived 
one  night  at  an  Indian  village  about  two  days  south  of  where 
I was  staying.  He  seemed  worn  and  hungry,  his  clothes  were  in 
tatters,  and,  approaching  cautiously,  he  sat  down  by  one  of  the 
fires.  The  Indians  spoke  to  him,  but  as  he  did  not  understand 
their  language,  they  could  make  nothing  of  him.  They  con- 
ferred among  themselves,  and  concluded  that  this  man  could 
have  no  good  purpose  there,  and  might  probably,  if  spared, 
show  an  attacking  party  of  foreigners  the  way  into  their  country. 

23 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 


They  therefore,  without  more  ado,  despatched  him  with  their 
clubs  where  he  sat.  Doubtless  the  poor  fellow  was  driven  by 
hunger  and  thirst  to  the  point  of  recklessness,  preferring  to  die 
by  the  hands  of  Indians  rather  than  endure  a lingering  death  by 
starvation,  and  there  was  just  the  faint  hope  that  the  Indians 
might  treat  him  humanely  and  spare  his  life. 

Two  men  alone  escaped  from  Ibareta’s  expedition  on  the 
River  Pilcomayo.  They  travelled  for  weeks,  subsisting  as  best 
they  could,  and  always  carefully  avoiding  beaten  tracks ; but 
on  entering  the  sphere  of  the  Mission  influence,  they  were  met 
by  an  Indian  who  took  them  to  his  village  and  looked  after 
them  carefully,  informing  them  that  English  people  lived  to  the 
north,  and  that  he  would  guide  them  to  their  village,  which  he 
did.  Some  time  after  this  a Spanish  gentleman  arrived  at  the 
Mission  station  with  letters  of  introduction,  soliciting  our  help 
in  searching  for  the  missing  explorer,  and  endeavouring  to  ascer- 
tain whether  he  were  dead  or  alive.  He  informed  me  of  his 
intention  of  taking  with  him  an  armed  party  of  sixty  men,  but 
I refused  all  help  if  he  did  so.  Eventually  my  friend  Pride 
and  a companion,  both  of  the  Mission  staff,  were  instructed  to 
accompany  him  with  a few  Indians,  and  they  in  due  course 
reached  the  Pilcomayo.  The  search,  however,  proved  fruit- 
less. 

Early  in  1890  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Stirling,  first  Bishop  of 
the  Falkland  Isles  and  Superintendent  of  the  Society’s  Missions, 
ordered  me  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  and  investigate  fully 
the  numbers,  location,  and  attitude  of  the  various  tribes,  with 
the  view  of  ascertaining  how  best  to  prosecute  the  Mission 
already  begun  by  Henricksen.  I could  have  availed  myself  of 
an  armed  guard  ; in  fact,  I was  urged  by  many  well-wishers  to 
do  so,  but,  as  a missionary  and  messenger  of  peace,  such  a course 
would  not  only  have  been  inconsistent,  but  inadvisable.  Had  I 
begun  this  work  under  armed  protection,  it  would  have  incensed 
the  Indians  against  me,  as  they  would  have  looked  upon  me  as 
a possible  enemy,  and  they  would  also  have  concluded  from  my 
coming  in  force  that  I was  to  some  extent  afraid  of  them. 
The  only  course  open,  therefore,  was  to  go  alone,  and  trust 

24 


A Search  Expedition 

On  the  march  to  the  River  Pilcomayo,  in  search  for  the  explorer  Ibareta  and  his  party.  No  traces  were  found,  which  fact  serves  to  confirm  the 

report  that  two  only  of  his  party  escaped  annihilation. 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 


myself  entirely  in  their  hands.  The  foregoing  instances  of  Ibareta 
and  others  serve  to  show  how  exceedingly  fraught  with  danger 
such  a course  was. 

There  was,  however,  a greater  source  of  danger,  of  which  I 
was  ignorant  at  the  time  when  I first  entered  the  Chaco,  and 
that  was  not  merely  the  hostility  of  the  Indians  to  foreigners, 
but  their  superstitious  fears.  Had  sickness,  for  example,  broken 
out  in  a village  through  which  I had  passed,  I should  in  all 
probability  have  been  held  responsible  for  it,  and,  if  any  deaths 
had  resulted,  they  would  have  felt  justified  by  their  laws  in 
putting  me  to  death.  Also  their  peculiar  belief  regarding 
dreams 1 would  supply  the  basis  for  any  number  of  accusations 
against  me,  and,  being  a foreigner  travelling  alone,  and  thus  a 
mystery  to  them,  I should  naturally  become  the  subject  of  many 
of  their  dreams.  Any  foreigner  would  be  liable  to  get  into 
trouble  in  like  manner,  but  in  my  case  the  fact  that  the 
people,  for  various  reasons,  looked  upon  me  from  the  begin- 
ning as  a foreign  wizard,  and  my  habit  of  inquiring  into  their 
customs  and  religious  rites  and  beliefs,  continually  increased  my 
danger. 

I was  anxious,  for  example,  to  explain  to  the  people  as  soon 
as  possible  my  reason  for  being  among  them,  and  accordingly 
tried  to  make  it  clear  to  them  that  I came  with  a message  of 
peace,  and  sought  their  spiritual  welfare.  But,  through  an  in- 
adequate knowledge  of  the  language,  I unwittingly  assured  them 
that  I was  the  intimate  and  particular  friend  of  the  greatest  of 
evil  spirits,  and  that  I had  come  among  them  in  order  to  make 
them  better  acquainted  with  him.  The  Indian  very  sensibly 
considered  that  he  knew  quite  enough  about  him  already,  and 
had  no  desire  to  make  his  further  acquaintance,  and  the  fact 
that  I professed  to  be  his  friend  and  servant  gave  them  by  no 
means  a favourable  idea  of  my  respectability,  nor  recommended 
my  presence  among  them. 

As  I learnt  more  of  their  customs,  I began  gradually  to  realize 
the  many  dangers  which  I had  unconsciously  run  the  risk  of 
incurring.  Had  I met  with  an  accident  or  fallen  sick  during  my 
1 See  Chapter  XIII. 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 


solitary  sojourn  among  them  and  swooned  away,  I should  in 
all  probability  have  been  buried,  as  the  Indians  do  not  dis- 
tinguish very  carefully  between  prolonged  unconsciousness  and 
actual  death,  and  in  my  case,  as  I was  a stranger  and  one 
regarded  with  suspicion  and  with  a certain  amount  of  fear,  they 
would  not  have  used  too  much  discrimination.  To  these  grave 
dangers  I may  add  the  risk  I ran  of  being  taken  captive  or  of 
being  forsaken  by  the  Indians  with  whom  I travelled,  and  thus 
having  to  find  my  way  as  best  I could  in  a wilderness  land. 

Having  previously  had  nearly  four  years1  experience  among 
the  Yaghan  Indians  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  having  studied 
Indian  life  and  character  from  all  other  possible  sources,  I was 
not  altogether  a novice  when  I entered  upon  my  work  in  the 
Chaco.  But  I afterwards  found  that  the  conditions  of  this  new 
sphere  were  very  different  from  all  that  I had  known  before. 
The  plans  which  I had  formed  for  myself,  although  they  did  not 
take  into  account  the  unforeseen  conditions  which  had  to  be 
faced,  yet  worked  so  admirably  that  I was  enabled  to  travel  and 
live  alone  among  these  people  for  some  years,  gaining  a great 
measure  of  influence  and  authority  over  them. 

Experienced  explorers,  Government  officials,  settlers,  traders, 
and  others,  on  hearing  of  my  determination  to  enter  the  Chaco 
alone  and  to  live  with  the  Indians,  warned  me  of  the  dangers  I 
was  incurring,  and  assured  me  that  such  a step  was  tantamount 
to  committing  suicide.  The  kind-hearted  peasants  and  many 
friends  whose  acquaintance  I had  made  during  my  few  months1 
residence  on  the  river’s  bank  implored  me  not  to  throw  away 
my  life,  and  some,  with  tears  in  their  eyes,  invoked  the  protection 
of  the  Virgin  and  Saints  on  my  behalf  when  they  found  I would 
not  be  dissuaded.  So  prevalent  was  the  opinion  that  I should 
assuredly  lose  my  life  that  on  three  occasions  in  particular,  owing 
to  my  prolonged  absence  and  to  reports  from  river  Indians, 
the  rumour  of  my  death  was  readily  accepted.  Once  it  was 
only  by  making  a forced  voyage  all  night  in  a canoe  that  I was 
enabled  to  prevent  an  official  announcement  of  my  death  being 
sent  home  by  the  British  Consul  at  Asuncion. 

Humanly  speaking,  my  preservation  during  these  early  years 

26 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 


was  mainly  due  to  the  attitude  which  I had  decided  on  in  my 
own  mind  as  the  best  to  adopt  in  dealing  with  such  a people. 
That  attitude  was  briefly  this  : to  assume  at  all  times  and  under 
all  circumstances  superiority  and  authority,  for  Indians  only 
respect  the  strong,  and  have  no  regard  whatever  for  a man  of 
weak  character  and  wavering  will.  Should  they  once  detect 
any  signs  of  fear  on  my  part,  I knew  that  my  work  among  them 
would  prove  a failure,  and  that  they  would  at  once  assume  it  to 
be  weakness  if  I sought  protection  from  their  Chiefs.  Again, 
if  I had  endeavoured  to  curry  favour  with  them  by  giving 
presents,  they  would  never  have  been  satisfied,  and  would  have 
resorted  to  threats  in  order  to  extort  more  from  me.  Being  a 
stranger  and  a guest  in  their  country,  I considered  it  wise  to 
respect,  as  far  as  possible,  their  customs  and  laws,  but  at  the 
same  time  I determined  to  show  them  very  clearly  that  I did 
not  intend  to  be  bound  by  such  restrictions  when  they  interfered 
with  my  plans. 

I knew  that  their  witch-doctors  would  treat  me  with  open 
hostility,  and  that  they  would  prove  the  greatest  obstacle  to 
the  foundation  of  a mission  among  their  people.  While  many 
of  the  native  customs  might  profitably  be  retained,  and  while  it 
was  wise  that  the  Chiefs  should  maintain  their  authority,  I 
realized  that  it  was  otherwise  in  the  case  of  the  wizards.  Their 
influence  was  entirely  evil,  and  if  Christianity  was  ever  to  take 
hold  of  the  people,  the  wizards  must  cease  to  exist.  Chiefs 
and  people  alike  feared  the  witch-doctor,  and  although  I 
knew  that  the  experiment  was  dangerous,  I felt  that  I must 
declare  open  war  against  them,  and  treat  their  threats  and 
boasted  powers  with  contempt.  In  this  way  I hoped  to  baffle 
the  wizards,  knowing  that  they  themselves  were  sceptical  of 
the  powers  which  they  professed  to  possess,  and  that  their 
superstitious  ignorance  was  such  that  they  believed  it  was  quite 
possible  that  there  might  be  other  wizards  who  really  had  powers 
such  as  they  claimed.  I hoped,  moreover,  to  convince  the 
Indians  that  I,  being  altogether  superior  to  their  wizards,  was 
well  worthy  of  their  respect,  and  capable  of  imparting  to  them 
knowledge  which  their  witch-doctors  did  not  possess.  I was 

27 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 


convinced  that,  by  living  in  their  villages,  mixing  freely  with 
them,  taking  part  in  their  ordinary  life,  joining  in  their  amuse- 
ments, sometimes  even  adopting  their  costume,  and  by  in  every 
way  in  my  power  making  myself  one  of  them,  I should  win  a 
place  in  their  hearts. 

Perhaps  a few  general  instances  given  here  will  best  illustrate 
the  way  in  which  I carried  out  this  policy. 

On  arriving  at  a village,  I insisted,  as  far  as  possible,  upon  all 
the  people  ministering  to  my  personal  comfoi’t.  I ordered  one 
to  prepare  my  resting-place,  another  to  make  a fire,  a third  to 
bring  me  water,  and  another  to  pull  off'  my  knee-boots.  When 
the  heat  was  great  or  the  flies  troublesome,  I made  two  sit  by 
me  with  fans.  When  on  foot,  and  having  to  cross  a swampy 
patch,  I made  one  of  them  carry  me  across — in  fact,  I avoided 
doing  anything  myself  that  I could  persuade  them  to  do  for  me. 

I generally  travelled  with  seven  or  eight  Indian  attendants, 
occasionally  giving  them  a small  present  for  their  services,  and 
I assumed  as  much  pomp  as  the  circumstances  would  allow.  In 
cases  of  difficulty,  however,  such  as  battling  with  a pampas  fire, 
getting  refractory  animals  across  a river,  and  the  like,  I took  a 
leading  part  myself,  in  order  to  show  them  that  I could  do  such 
things  when  necessary. 

I studied  their  varying  dispositions,  and  whenever  I found 
that  they  were  likely  to  disobey  an  order,  I refrained  from 
giving  it,  so  that  they  might  never  realize  that  they  could . 
disobey  me,  or  that  I really  had  no  means  of  making  them 
carry  it  out.  One  night  I had  told  them  that  I intended 
resuming  my  journey  at  the  rising  of  the  morning  star.  After 
I had  lain  down  to  sleep,  I overheard  them  saying  that  they 
would  not  go  on  in  the  morning,  as  they  intended  hunting  till 
mid-day.  I made  a note  of  this.  On  the  morrow,  after  they 
had  boiled  my  kettle,  they  told  me  the  star  would  soon  be  up, 
and  asked  if  I should  be  ready  to  start.  I knew  perfectly  well 
that  there  would  be  trouble,  so  I answered  : “ No ; I intend  to 
remain  here  till  the  afternoon.”  Presently  they  asked  per- 
mission to  go  hunting,  and  this  I granted  to  all  but  one, 
impressing  upon  them  that  they  must  be  back  by  early  after- 

28 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 


noon.  This  suited  them  perfectly,  although  it  did  not  suit  me, 
but  it  enabled  me  to  assert  my  authority  without  danger  of  its 
being  disputed,  although  they  unknowingly  had  in  reality  gained 
the  mastery. 

It  was  sometimes  very  difficult  not  to  betray  a sign  of  nervous- 
ness when  in  a tight  corner ; still,  I knew  that  any  symptom  of 
fear  would  be  my  undoing.  On  one  occasion  when  the  Indians 
were  very  angry  with  me,  one  man  actually  fixed  an  arrow  in 
his  bow,  and,  pushing  the  point  against  my  chest,  threatened  to 
drive  it  through  me.  I could  clearly  see  that  he  was  only 
trying  to  intimidate  me,  and  I managed  to  burst  out  into  a fit 
of,  I must  confess,  very  insincere  and  forced  laughter.  He 
shrank  back  surprised,  and,  following  up  my  advantage,  I abused 
him  heartily,  and  took  the  first  opportunity  to  go  off  with 
assumed  disdain,  but  really  to  avoid  further  danger. 

The  various  clans  are  extremely  jealous  of  each  other.  One 
day  I required  the  services  of  twelve  men,  and  accordingly 
applied  to  the  Chief,  but  he  refused.  I then  dealt  directly  with 
the  men  myself.  They  were  willing,  but  said  that  their  Chief 
would  not  allow  them.  “ Oh,  all  right,”  I said  ; “ if  you  cannot 
obey  me,  I will  go  and  stay  at  Yithwase-yamilkit.  I cannot  be 
thwarted  in  this  way.”  I could  see  at  once  that,  rather  than 
allow  me  to  do  this,  they  would  comply  with  my  wishes  in  spite 
of  their  Chief.  They  went  and  consulted  with  him,  and  then 
came  back  to  tell  me  that  they  would  do  as  I wished.  I refused 
their  services,  but  after  a time  relented,  on  condition  that  they 
nominated  another  Chief  and  deposed  the  present  one.  They 
again  consulted.  Presently  the  Chief  himself  came  to  me, 
assumed  a very  aggrieved  tone,  informed  me  that  he  had  always 
been  my  friend,  and  inquired  the  reason  of  my  wrath.  I told 
him  he  was  well  aware  of  the  cause,  and  he  expressed  regret, 
saying  that  he  would  at  once  order  his  men  to  do  as  I wanted. 
I therefore  agreed  to  overlook  the  matter,  but  impressed  upon 
him  that  it  must  not  occur  again.  To  have  coaxed  him, 
given  him  a present,  or  to  have  supplicated  his  good  offices, 
would  have  resulted  in  his  victimizing  me  whenever  he  thought 
it  would  suit  his  purpose. 


29 


DANGERS  OF  ENTRANCE 


It  was  impossible,  as  I have  said,  for  me  to  be  other  than 
always  in  open  opposition  to  the  wizards,  and  many  of  my 
Indian  friends  frequently  counselled  me  to  be  more  discreet  in 
my  dealings  with  them,  assuring  me  that  these  men  had  great 
powers,  and  would  some  day  resent  my  behaviour  to  them  and 
bewitch  me.  I was  well  aware  that  there  was  considerable 
danger  in  opposing  them,  but  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  I 
should  show  no  fear  of  them,  in  order  to  convince  the  people 
that  their  claims  were  fraudulent.  On  one  occasion,  after  a 
great  discussion  upon  the  question  of  witchcraft,  I challenged 
the  wizards  to  give  a display  of  their  power.  I offered  to  sit 
down  twenty  paces  from  them,  and  allow  them  to  work  upon 
me  with  such  enchantments  as  entailed  no  personal  handling  of 
me.  They  professed  to  be  able  to  do  marvels  at  a great  distance 
from  the  person  they  wished  to  bewitch,  and  I told  them  that 
they  should  the  more  easily  be  able  to  do  so  at  so  short  a 
distance,  but  they  one  and  all  declined  the  challenge.  The 
natives  seemed  convinced  that  they  doubted  their  power  over 
me,  and  realized  fullv  that  I had  no  fear  whatever  of  them. 

What  measure  of  success  or  failure  attended  the  policy  which 
I adopted  during  my  wanderings  with  the  Indians  the  reader 
will  be  able  to  estimate  for  himself  in  the  following  chapter, 
and  from  other  episodes  recounted  in  this  narrative. 


30 


CHAPTER  III 
INTO  THE  UNKNOWN 


A few  months  previous  to  my  arrival  in  Paraguay,  Adolpho 
Henricksen,  the  founder  of  the  Mission,  had  died  from  the 
effects  of  exposure  on  the  river.  He  had  established  a tem- 
porary station  at  Riacho  Fernandez,  an  island  in  the  River 
Paraguay,  some  thirty  miles  north  of  Villa  Concepcion,  and 
his  constant  journeys  in  a canoe  to  and  from  this  town,  exposed 
to  all  weathers,  proved  too  much  for  his  constitution.  His  two 
companions  left  the  Mission  soon  after  my  arrival,  and  I thus 
had  to  make  my  way  single-handed. 

I found  Riacho  Fernandez  by  no  means  a desirable  or  beautiful 
spot.  Mosquitos  hung  about  all  day,  and  at  night  were  so 
troublesome  that  I had  early  to  seek  the  shelter  of  my  net.  In 
addition  to  these  pests,  sandflies,  horseflies,  and  fleas  made  life 
almost  intolerable.  The  island  was  sandy,  and  swarmed  with 
ants — little  red,  stinging  creatures,  which  got  into  all  the  food, 
and  swarmed  so  thickly  on  to  the  table  during  meals  that  it  was 
necessary  to  skim  the  soup.  The  sugar  was  always  a mass  of 
ants,  and  the  only  means  of  getting  rid  of  them  was  by  putting 
them  with  the  sugar  into  the  tea  or  coffee,  and  skimming  them 
off  when  they  rose  to  the  surface.  My  food  consisted  chiefly  of 
biscuits,  rice,  and  sun-dried  meat.  Owing  to  the  damp,  hot 
climate,  this  meat  soon  became  filled  with  maggots,  but  in  the 
process  of  stewing  these  also  rose  to  the  surface,  and  were  easily 
got  rid  of. 

During  my  short  stay  on  this  island  I acquired  a very  limited 
vocabulary  of  Indian  words,  and  a still  more  limited  pronuncia- 
tion. The  language  had  yet  to  be  reduced  to  writing,  and, 

31 


INTO  THE  UNKNOWN 


owing  to  the  lack  of  ax-ticulation  in  an  Indian’s  speech,  it  was  a 
difficult  matter  to  acquire  even  a few  words ; and  in  order  to 
prevent  me  learning  their  language,  they  gave  me  the  wrong 
words  more  often  than  the  right.  However,  by  noting  down 
sounds  in  my  note-book,  which  I always  had  at  hand,  I was  able 
to  pick  up  a few  words,  which  stood  me  in  good  stead  on  my 
early  expeditions. 

I soon  discovered  that  the  original  design  of  trying  to  win 
the  Indians  who  could  be  attracted  to  the  comparatively  safe 
position  which  I held  on  the  bank  of  the  River  Paraguay  was 
utterly  impracticable.  Few  Indians  frequented  the  bank  of  this 
river,  and  those  who  did  so  had  become  very  degenerate — had 
taken  to  drink  and  other  bad  habits — through  their  intercourse 
with  the  foreign  settlements.  The  real  Indian  population  lived 
in  the  interior,  and  there,  consequently,  lay  my  goal.  It  was 
with  alacrity  that  I obeyed  Bishop  Stilling’s  orders  to  push  into 
the  interior,  with  the  view  of  establishing  a Mission  in  the  heart 
of  the  Chaco.  I fully  realized  that  the  element  of  personal 
danger  would  be  vastly  greater  there  than  at  Riacho  Fernandez, 
but  it  was  equally  patent  that  no  Indian  Mission  could  be 
established  with  that  as  its  base. 

Having  heard  of  a well  populated  line  running  westward 
towards  the  River  Pilcomayo,  I determined  to  penetrate  in  that 
direction,  with  a view  to  examining  what  possibilities  there 
were  among  the  Indians  there. 

In  order  not  to  be  tedious  to  the  reader,  I shall  refrain  from 
giving  a detailed  account  of  this  and  other  journeys  which  I 
made  during  my  first  four  years  in  the  interior,  throughout 
which  period  I was  continually  on  the  move  from  place  to  place, 
living  alone  with  the  Indians.  I shall  confine  myself  to  some  of 
the  more  interesting  incidents  and  experiences,  which  will  show 
the  effects  of  the  policy  adopted  in  my  early  acquaintance  with 
this  unknown  people. 

For  my  first  journey  I selected  five  river  Indians  as  guides, 
but  they  were  not  very  anxious  to  go,  putting  all  kinds  of 
objections  in  my  way.  At  the  very  outset  they  purposely 
endeavoured  to  delay  me  by  continually  pretending  to  lose  the 

32 


INTO  THE  UNKNOWN 


track,  hoping  by  this  means  to  induce  me  to  give  up  the 
attempt  in  disgust.  Eventually,  however,  we  arrived  at  a 
village  called  Kilmesakthlapomap  (“  the  place  of  burnt  pigs  ”). 
As  my  guides  were  dawdling  behind,  evidently  afraid  of  the 
reception  they  would  meet  with  for  bringing  a strange  foreigner 
into  their  fastnesses,  I rode  on  ahead  of  them  right  up  into  the 
midst  of  the  village.  The  Indians,  who  were  in  strong  force, 
were  holding  a feast,  at  which  apparently  a plentiful  supply  of 
native  beer  was  being  consumed.  I heard  afterwards  that  they 
had  had  news  of  the  possibility  of  my  arrival  among  them,  but 
my  sudden  appearance  seemed  to  fill  them  with  astonishment. 

Annoyed  at  the  conduct  of  my  guides,  I determined  to  take 
a high  hand,  and  so  beckoned  to  a young  Indian  standing  by, 
and  ordered  him  to  take  my  horse  to  water.  My  vocabulary 
being  very  limited,  I was  compelled  to  make  considerable  use  of 
signs.  Beckoning  to  a woman,  I pointed  to  a shady  tree  near 
by,  and,  sitting  down  upon  the  ground,  gave  her  to  understand 
that  I would  camp  under  that  tree,  and,  pointing  to  a fire,  I told 
her  to  take  it  and  place  it  there  for  my  convenience.  I then 
walked  round  the  village,  beating  off  the  dogs  with  my  whip, 
and  selected  a piece  of  pumpkin  here  and  there  and  a few 
potatoes.  These  I gave  to  a man,  and  signed  to  him  to  put 
them  under  the  tree  where  I intended  to  camp.  By  this  time 
my  horse  had  been  brought  back,  so  I unsaddled  it,  and  then 
gave  the  lad  instructions  as  well  as  I could  to  let  it  loose  and  to 
look  after  it.  I then  called  one  of  the  boys  to  me,  and  sent 
him  off  with  my  kettle  to  the  swamp  for  water,  and  thus  the 
arrangements  for  my  comfort  were  complete. 

I afterwards  learnt  from  the  Indians  that  my  high-handed 
behaviour,  which,  if  shown  by  one  of  their  own  people,  not  only 
would  have  been  considered  insufferably  rude,  but  would  have 
been  strongly  resented,  had  filled  them  with  surprise.  They 
could  not  understand  how  a defenceless  stranger  could  act  in 
this  way  among  so  many  people.  They  said  it  made  them  fear 
me,  as  they  felt  I must  be  possessed  of  some  occult  power.  But 
they  had  determined  among  themselves  to  watch  my  movements 
very  closely,  and  to  test  me  that  very  night. 

33  c 


INTO  THE  UNKNOWN 


I knew  that  my  safety  lay  in  the  fact  that  I acted  without 
any  show  of  power  in  arms ; instead  of  threatening  a native, 
I took  it  for  granted  that  he  would  obey  me.  The  course  of 
action  which  I followed  on  this  occasion  was  delibei’ately  thought 
out.  I was  well  aware  that  these  Indians  did  not  want  me  in 
their  country,  that  they  were  suspicious  of  me,  and  I knew,  too, 
that  I had  no  power  with  which  to  carry  my  point.  I was  only 
one  among  many  ; I could  not  even  have  got  back  to  the  river 
without  their  aid,  and  I could  not  possibly  go  forward  without 
their  co-operation.  On  the  other  hand,  I knew  the  Indian  well 
enough  to  be  sure  that  if  I adopted  a timid  and  gentle  attitude, 
and,  as  it  were,  asked  him  to  accommodate  me  as  a favour, 
he,  mistaking  that  attitude  for  weakness,  would  have  taken 
advantage  of  me.  It  must  be  remembered  that  as  far  as  the 
Indian  was  concerned  I was  a foreigner,  and  therefore  one  of  the 
enemy ; and  the  only  explanation  that  I can  give  for  their 
allowing  me  to  enter  their  country  as  I did,  is  that  they  were 
merely  cui'ious  to  know  what  I wanted,  and  as  I was  defenceless, 
they  were  not  much  afraid  of  me. 

But  the  tone  of  authority  which  I took  nonplussed  them.  It 
was  not  sufficient  for  my  purposes  that  I should  be  merely 
suffered  in  their  country  as  a harmless  creature.  The  Indian  is 
superstitious  and  impulsive,  and  if  my  inoffensiveness  had  been 
my  only  passport,  I might  have  fallen  a victim  at  any  moment, 
and  the  chances  of  my  gaining  an  influence  over  them  for  their 
good  would  have  been  remote.  But  when  he  saw  me  apparently 
defenceless,  and  yet  assuming  an  air  of  authority,  the  Indian  was 
puzzled,  as  I intended  he  should  be.  I afterwards  learnt  that 
they  did  not  regard  me  as  an  ordinary  foreigner,  and  that  they 
were  impressed  by  the  fact  that  I never  threatened  violence,  but 
simply  assumed  that  they  must  submit  to  my  wishes. 

My  refractory  guides,  who  had  joined  me  in  the  village, 
refused  to  conduct  me  further  west,  so  I dismissed  them  and 
sent  them  back  to  the  River  Paraguay.  I was  therefore  entirely 
at  the  mercy  of  people,  knowing  none  and  being  known  of 
none.  As  night  drew  on  I deemed  it  expedient  to  so  arrange 
my  bed  as  to  be  able  to  lie  on  the  top  of  most  of  my  baggage, 

34 


INTO  THE  UNKNOWN 


for  fear  of  any  attempt  at  pilfering.  I was  justified  in  taking 
these  precautions,  for  it  seems  that  the  Indians  had  determined 
to  rifle  my  belongings  that  night,  in  order  to  see  what  attitude 
I would  take.  Not  long  after  I had  retired  to  rest  under  my 
net,  I saw  two  dark  figures  stealthily  moving  round,  and 
presently  I felt  a hand  inserted  beneath  me  and  fumbling  at  my 
baggage.  They  evidently  supposed  me  to  be  asleep,  but  when 
I suddenly  put  out  my  head  and  shouted  at  them,  they  dis- 
appeared precipitately.  I spent  an  anxious  and  watchful  night, 
but  received  no  more  visitors. 

On  the  following  morning  I called  the  Chief,  and  did  my  best 
to  make  him  understand  that  I wanted  to  travel  five  days  to  the 
west,  to  the  village  of  their  war  Chief,  Yahoyispuk  (“  Stork- 
neck  ”),  and  that  I required  guides  for  the  journey.  Much 
talking  followed,  but  no  volunteers  came  forward,  and  it  was 
very  evident  that  they  did  not  want  me  to  go  on.  I offered  a 
pair  of  cotton  trousers  as  a reward  to  the  first  man  who  should 
volunteer  to  accompany  me,  but  even  they  did  not  seem  to 
attract.  I had  another  pair,  evidently  made  out  of  the  end  of 
the  piece  of  calico,  for  stamped  in  blue  ink  upon  one  of  the  legs 
was  the  British  Lion  and  “ 30  yards,  Manchester.”  This  was 
too  much  for  the  witch-doctor,  for  he  at  once  offered  to  go  if  I 
would  give  him  that  pair.  I agreed,  and  he  was  proceeding  to 
try  them  on  when  I stopped  him,  and  gave  him  to  understand 
that  they  would  not  be  his  until  he  had  completed  his  contract. 
He  was  not  too  well  pleased  at  this,  but  apparently  agreed  to 
the  bargain,  so  in  due  time  we  set  off,  and  after  many  vicissi- 
tudes arrived  at  the  village  of  Yahoyispuk. 


35 


CHAPTER  IV 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1890  I returned  from  the  interior 
to  Riacho  Fernandez,  and  as  I had  no  companion  to  look  after 
my  few  belongings,  I found  it  necessary  to  remove  them  to  Villa 
Concepcion,  where  I rented  a room  for  the  purpose. 

Early  in  1891  I made  an  extended  tour  in  Paraguay  proper, 
in  order  to  see  what  opportunities  there  might  be  of  reaching 
the  Indians  on  that  side,  but  as  I am  confining  myself  in  this 
work  to  the  Chaco,  I shall  not  dwell  upon  the  difficulties  and 
adventures  met  with  on  that  journey. 

Riacho  Fernandez,  which  was  the  property  of  an  English  land 
company,  was  now  occupied  by  them  as  a wood-cutting  station, 
and  on  my  return  there  I found  that  the  Indians  had  broken 
into  their  store,  and  had  carried  off  a considerable  quantity  of 
goods.  I accordingly  resolved  to  visit  the  Indians  concerned,  in 
order  to  see  if  I could  persuade  them  to  return  what  they  had 
stolen,  or  at  least  to  give  compensation. 

When  I declared  my  intention  of  following  up  the  thieves, 
I was  laughed  at  by  the  Paraguayans  and  the  representatives 
of  the  company.  They  told  me  that  the  looters  had  retired 
many  leagues  into  the  interior  for  fear  of  reprisals,  and  that 
they  were  reported  to  be  in  a very  dangerous  mood.  Neverthe- 
less, I considered  it  well  worth  my  while  to  make  the  attempt. 
It  was  clearly  quite  as  dangerous  to  penetrate  into  the  country 
in  any  other  direction,  as  I knew  that  the  report  of  what  these 
Indians  had  done  must  by  this  time  have  reached  the  Indian 
villages  far  and  wide.  If  the  delinquents  were  not  punished  or 
brought  to  see  the  error  of  their  ways,  it  was  perfectly  clear  that 

36 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


they  would  behave  towards  me,  if  I established  any  station  among 
them,  especially  in  the  interior,  as  they  had  towards  the  English 
company.  Again,  if  I could  succeed  in  making  them  pay  for 
all  they  had  taken,  it  would  be  a great  recommendation  for 
my  system  of  dealing  with  them,  and  would  tend  to  gain  me 
the  support  and  sympathy  so  urgently  needed  in  the  great 
undertaking  contemplated. 

I accordingly  found  my  way  on  foot  to  a small  Indian  en- 
campment near  a forest,  about  six  miles  inland.  There  I met 
an  old  Indian  who  possessed  a horse.  After  some  difficulty, 
I persuaded  him  to  take  me  to  the  village  of  the  thieves,  and, 
mounting  behind  him  on  the  same  horse,  without  a saddle,  I 
travelled  about  eighteen  miles,  until  we  reached  a place  called 
Neantamama,  where  I found  the  culprits.  They  were  rather 
defiant  and  insolent  at  first,  but  with  the  little  language  at 
my  disposal  I attacked  them  vigorously  on  the  subject  of  the 
theft,  explaining  to  them  that  it  had  been  my  intention  to 
throw  in  my  lot  with  their  people  and  make  my  home  among 
them,  but  that  I could  not  think  of  doing  so  unless  they  took 
steps  to  throw  off  this  reproach  on  their  character.  On  my 
telling  them  that  they  would  probably  be  attacked  by  the 
Paraguayans,  they  only  laughed,  and  said  they  were  not  afraid. 
I then  informed  them  that  all  along  the  River  Paraguay  they 
were  regarded  as  thieves  and  sneaking  foxes,  and  that  I could 
never  again  take  any  of  them  with  me  to  Concepcion,  because 
I too  should  be  looked  upon  as  a thief  if  I consorted  with 
thieves.  They  got  angry  at  this,  and  reminded  me  that  I was 
alone,  while  they  were  many.  I told  them  that  I had  no  fear, 
and  that  only  six  months  before,  as  they  well  knew,  I had 
journeyed  alone  to  the  village  of  their  great  war  Chief,  Yahoyis- 
puk.  Turning  sharply  on  one  of  them,  I reminded  him  how  I 
had  acted  on  an  occasion,  some  nine  months  previously,  when 
he  pushed  his  arrow -point  against  my  chest  and  threatened  to 
shoot  me.  “ Which  of  us  was  most  afraid  then  ?”  I said.  At 
this  some  of  his  people  smiled,  and  he  clearly  showed  that  he 
did  not  appreciate  the  reminder. 

Eventually  they  invited  me  to  sit  down  and  discuss  the  theft 

37 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


question.  The  result  of  this  conversation  was  that  they  agreed 
to  repay  the  value  of  what  they  had  stolen  in  skins  and  feathers, 
but  only  on  condition  that  I promised  to  go  with  them  to  the 
foreigners,  and  afterwards  to  return  and  live  with  them.  To 
this  I agreed,  but  took  the  precaution  of  remaining  at  their 
village  until  they  got  together  the  necessary  amount  of  skins 
and  feathers. 

During  this  period  of  waiting  relations  between  us  were  some- 
what strained.  They  wanted  me  to  promise  that  I would  con- 
fine myself  to  their  village,  and  become  a member  of  their 
particular  clan.  This  I refused  to  do,  telling  them  that  I 
intended  eventually  to  make  my  headquarters  in  the  interior  of 
their  country,  and  that  I would  not  rest  till  all  the  Indians  were 
my  people.  They  told  me  that  the  clans  in  the  interior  would 
kill  me,  and  that  it  was  absurd  to  expect  that  their  people  as  a 
whole  would  allow  me  to  have  a position  of  power  among  them, 
whereas  they,  being  my  friends,  were  willing  to  receive  me.  I 
knew  that  this  was  mere  jealousy,  and,  addressing  a few  of  them, 
whom  I had  taken  with  me  on  my  first  expedition  into  the 
interior,  I taunted  them  with  the  manner  in  which  they  had 
tricked  me,  the  difficulties  they  had  put  in  my  way,  and  their 
cowardly  action  in  leaving  me  in  the  midst  of  their  unknown 
country  to  find  my  way  as  best  I could. 

In  a few  days  the  necessary  amount  of  skins  and  feathers  was 
procured  by  hunting,  and,  accompanied  by  the  Indians,  I re- 
turned to  Riacho  Fernandez,  and  paid  them  over  to  the  English 
company  as  compensation  for  the  theft. 

Cheered  by  the  influence  which  I seemed  to  have  gained,  I 
became  hopeful  of  the  future  success  of  my  work,  and  accord- 
ingly returned  with  this  party  of  Indians  and  established  myself 
with  them  at  Neantamama.  As  I intended  to  remain  there  for 
some  months,  and  found  it  inconvenient  to  live  actually  in  the 
village,  I made  the  Indians  build  a separate  hut  for  me.  It 
was  about  eleven  feet  high  at  the  ridge,  and  a little  over  six  feet 
to  the  wall-plate.  The  walls  consisted  of  palm-logs  and  sticks, 
about  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  were  made  partly  weather- 
proof by  a rough  thatching  of  grass.  The  roof  also  was  of 

38 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


grass  thatch.  There  was  no  door  to  this  dwelling,  but  as  a 
substitute  a bush  was  stuck  in  the  opening  as  a protection 
against  the  entrance  of  dogs.  My  table  consisted  of  four  palm- 
stumps  stuck  into  the  ground,  with  a deer-skin  stretched  over 
them,  and  my  seat  was  made  of  two  half  palm-stems  fixed  on 
to  two  uprights.  I slept  on  the  floor,  on  a sheep-skin.  My 
possessions  I placed  in  Indian  net-bags  slung  from  the  rafters. 

One  day  the  Indians  killed  a cow,  and  I secured  a quarter  of 
it  from  which  to  make  charqui,  or  sun-dried  meat.  These 
strips  of  meat  I took  in  at  night,  and  strung  them  up  to  the 
rafters  for  security.  On  the  following  night,  while  asleep  under 
my  net,  I was  awakened  by  a rustling  noise  outside.  I listened 
attentively,  thinking  at  first  it  might  be  a dog,  but  the  careful 
way  in  which  the  grass  at  the  foot  of  the  wall  was  being  gently 
torn  out  convinced  me  that  it  was  a man,  and  not  a dog.  I 
accordingly  waited  developments,  and  presently  a dark,  shaggy 
head  wormed  its  way  through  the  wall.  Gently  loosening  the 
folds  of  my  mosquito-net  from  beneath  my  sheep-skin  bed,  which 
was  laid  within  a few  feet  of  the  wall,  I shot  out  my  hand  and 
caught  a firm  hold  of  the  intruder’s  back  hair,  at  the  same  time 
pinning  his  face  down  to  the  ground.  It  was  a most  ludicrous 
sight  to  see  this  naked  man  thus  caught  in  a trap,  lying  on  his 
stomach,  his  head  protruding  through  the  thatch,  wedged  face 
downwards,  and  my  hand  firmly  gripping  his  hair.  I then 
inquired  who  my  visitor  was,  and  from  muffled  sounds  I dis- 
covered it  was  “ Alligator  Stomach.”  By  way  of  explanation, 
he  coolly  told  me  that  he  had  heard  dogs  near  my  hut,  and, 
fearing  for  the  safety  of  my  meat,  he  had  simply  come  to  drive 
them  out.  Still  retaining  my  hold  of  him,  I asked  why  he  had 
gone  to  the  trouble  of  breaking  through  my  wall  instead  of 
coming  through  the  doorway,  and  told  him  that,  in  my  opinion, 
he  was  the  dog ; then,  pushing  his  head  roughly  through  the 
hole,  I bade  him  begone.  He  was  known  to  me  as  a greedy  and 
worthless  fellow,  and  yet,  although  caught  in  such  a position, 
he  coolly  professed  to  have  been  acting  on  my  behalf. 

This  was  not  the  first  occasion  on  which  the  Indians  had  in 
this  way  shown  their  consideration  for  me.  While  at  Riacho 

39 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


Fernandez,  the  old  Chief  and  some  of  his  people  repeatedly 
brought  me  presents  of  vegetables,  and  refused  to  receive  any 
payment  for  them.  But,  being  rather  softened  by  such  generosity, 
I insisted  upon  giving  them  a present  in  return,  which  consisted 
of  rice  and  biscuits.  This  went  on  for  several  days ; but,  happily, 
one  night  I slept  badly,  and,  feeling  irritable,  I got  up  from  my 
bed.  Quite  contrary  to  my  custom,  I took  a walk  in  the 
direction  of  my  garden,  just  as  the  first  streak  of  dawn  was 
appearing.  In  the  dim  light  I could  discern  dark  shadows 
moving  about  in  my  potato-patch,  and,  on  approaching  nearer, 
I discovered  the  secret  of  the  Indians’  generosity.  There  was 
the  old  Chief,  with  two  others,  busily  digging  up  my  potatoes, 
undoubtedly  intending  to  bring  them  to  me  an  hour  or  so  later 
as  a present,  and  in  return,  of  course,  to  receive  a gift  of  grati- 
tude from  me.  But  the  game  was  up,  much  to  their  disgust 
and  greatly  to  my  satisfaction.  I gave  them  the  benefit  of  my 
limited  vocabulary,  and  made  a mental  note  of  the  discovery  for 
future  use. 

Many  of  the  neighbouring  Indians  had  joined  the  party  with 
which  I originally  settled  at  Neantamama,  and  I had  been 
urging  upon  them  for  some  time  the  advisability  of  combining 
to  form  one  large  permanent  village,  and  of  giving  up  their 
nomadic  habits.  My  efforts  met  with  some  measure  of  success ; 
and  having  in  the  course  of  hunting  expeditions  with  the  natives 
discovered  a place  called  Thlagnasinkinmith  (“  the  place  of  the 
gurapata , or  ticks”),  I decided  on  this  site,  and  the  Indians 
expressed  their  willingness  to  accompany  me  thither. 

Before  making  this  move  I thought  it  wise  to  visit  Concepcion 
to  settle  some  of  my  business  matters,  because,  once  the  new 
venture  was  in  hand,  I might  not  be  able  to  get  away  for  many 
months.  I accordingly  packed  my  things  together,  and,  after 
giving  them  in  charge  of  a few  selected  and  influential  Indians, 
I left  for  Concepcion. 

I was  delayed  much  longer  than  I anticipated,  and  on  my 
way  up  river  it  was  reported  to  me  that  the  Indians  to  whom  I 
had  entrusted  my  property  had  stolen  it  and  decamped.  Those 
foreigners  who  gave  me  this  information  exulted  in  the  fact, 

40 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


and  added  bitterness  to  my  disappointment  by  saying  that  they 
had  always  told  me  it  was  no  good  trusting  an  Indian,  that  they 
were  treacherous  and  vicious,  and  that  the  only  good  Indian 
was  a dead  one. 

On  arrival  at  my  port  of  disembarkation  I met  an  Indian, 
who  informed  me  that  my  stuff  had  not  been  stolen,  but  had 
been  left  safely  in  my  hut,  adding  that  my  Indians,  who  were 
encamped  near  a forest  some  eight  miles  inland,  did  not  want 
to  associate  any  further  with  me.  On  hearing  this  I proceeded 
at  once  to  their  camp,  and  upbraided  them  bitterly  for  their 
desertion.  They  entered  into  no  excuses,  but  simply  maintained 
that  they  wanted  to  have  nothing  more  to  do  with  me.  I tried 
to  prevail  upon  them  at  least  to  help  me  to  bring  my  belongings 
to  the  River  Paraguay,  but  they  would  not  even  do  this. 

I was  thoroughly  dispirited  and  cast  down,  and  began  to 
think  that  I should  never  be  able  to  form  a Mission  among 
them.  The  Jesuits,  generations  before,  had  endeavoured  to 
reach  other  Chaco  tribes,  but  had  failed  to  establish  any  lasting 
work  among  them  ; and  I could  not  help  thinking  that,  if  they 
had  failed,  with  advantages  on  their  side  greater  than  mine, 
how  could  I possibly  hope  to  succeed  ? 

Just  as  I was  contemplating  a return  to  the  river,  four  men 
were  espied  coming  in  from  the  west.  I hastened  out  to  meet 
them,  anxious  to  have  an  interview  with  them  before  they  could 
communicate  with  the  people  in  the  camp.  My  main  object 
was  to  ascertain  from  them  whether  they  had  seen  my  goods, 
and  thus  to  assure  mvself  of  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the 
others,  for  I began  to  fear  that  the  report  of  their  theft  which 
I had  heard  at  the  river  might  after  all  be  correct.  On  meeting 
the  visitors,  I recognized  them  at  once.  One  was  Yokseyi,  the 
Chief  of  a village  I touched  at  on  my  first  long  expedition  into 
the  interior ; and  one  of  his  companions  was  also  a celebrated 
Chief.  Another  was  the  witch-doctor  who  accompanied  me  as 
guide,  and  whom  I rewarded  with  the  pair  of  trousers  bearing 
the  Lion  and  Manchester  mark.  The  remaining  one  was  the 
man  who  had  tried  to  steal  my  goods  on  which  I was  lying 
during  the  first  night  that  I spent  in  the  interior. 

41 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


I was  delighted  to  see  them,  and  explained  to  them  my 
plight,  and  the  attitude  of  the  people  in  the  village  behind  me. 
They  informed  me  that  they  had  seen  my  things  in  my  hut,  and 
that  they  were  then  on  their  way  to  the  river  to  barter  their 
feathers  and  skins.  The  pipe  was  passed  round,  and  we  smoked 
for  a few  minutes  in  silence.  I ventured  to  ask  them  if  they 
would  return  with  me  and  help  me  with  my  goods,  and,  greatly 
to  my  surprise,  they  at  once  agreed. 

We  then  proceeded  to  join  the  others  in  the  camp,  and  on 
my  approach  I could  see  clearly  that  a sharp  discussion  had 
been  going  on.  As  soon  as  the  visitors  were  received  this 
discussion  was  renewed.  My  four  companions  informed  the 
people  that  they  were  going  back  with  me  to  my  hut.  Angry 
words  then  ensued,  but  presently  the  second  Chief  of  the  camp, 
Pinse-apawa,  and  some  of  the  people  with  him,  rose  and  informed 
me  that  they,  too,  were  prepared  to  go.  We  accordingly  lost 
little  time  in  setting  out  on  the  journey  inland,  where  I found 
my  goods  intact. 

This  incident  is  remarkable,  because,  humanly  speaking,  had 
it  not  been  for  my  meeting  with  these  four  men,  I should  have 
had  to  abandon,  at  least  for  some  time,  perhaps  for  ever,  my 
attempt  to  settle  among  this  people.  The  witch-doctor  and 
Yokseyi  eventually  became  sincere  Christians  and  the  other 
two  fast  friends.  Through  them  I was  led  in  the  end  to 
establish  the  Mission  in  the  far  interior,  and  from  their  clan  the 
first  adherents  to  the  Christian  Church  were  won.  Pinse-apawa 
and  his  people,  although  they  continued  with  me  for  a time, 
eventually  left  me,  and  from  none  of  these  river-people  have  we 
yet  succeeded  in  winning  a convert. 

I was  doomed  to  lose  my  property  after  all,  for,  while  making 
preparations  at  Neantamama  for  our  move  to  Thlagnasiukinmith, 
my  hut  caught  fire.  The  season  being  a very  dry  one,  and 
my  hut  being  built  of  the  inflammable  material  already  men- 
tioned, the  evening  breeze  quickly  fanned  the  flames,  with  the 
result  that  we  could  save  very  little  owing  to  the  fierce  heat  and 
blinding  smoke.  While  gazing  at  the  destruction,  I suddenly 
remembered  a small  case  containing  about  nine  pounds  of 

42 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


powder,  which  was  lying  in  the  hut.  I shouted  to  the  people 
to  stand  dear,  but  to  my  surprise,  and  before  anyone  could 
prevent  her,  an  old  woman  rushed  forward.  In  some  marvellous 
manner  she  got  possession  of  the  case,  which  was  lying  near  one 
of  the  walls,  and,  fighting  her  way  through  the  smoke  and 
flames,  she  placed  it  triumphantly  at  a safe  distance.  Some 
loose  tins  of  powder  which  still  remained  in  the  hut  presently 
exploded,  greatly  to  the  consternation  of  the  Indians,  and  in  a 
few  minutes  the  hut  fell  in,  and  all  was  over. 

As  all  my  property  was  consumed — clothes,  boots,  watch, 
and  other  important  belongings — I was  compelled  to  adopt  the 
costume  of  the  Indians  for  a time,  until  the  order  which  I 
had  sent  to  Concepcion  for  more  clothes  could  be  carried  out. 
Therefore,  on  this  migration  to  Thlagnasinkinmith,  I travelled 
in  Indian  fashion,  with  only  a blanket.  The  Indians,  being 
thoroughly  delighted  with  my  appearance,  decorated  me  with 
some  necklaces  and  an  ostrich-feather  head-dress,  and  honoured 
me  with  an  additional  name,  “ Tathnawu-lamum”  (a  dandy). 
Although  I may  have  looked  very  picturesque  to  them  in  this 
costume,  I suffered  considerably  from  the  bare  parts  of  my  body 
being  attacked  by  the  insects,  but  I experienced  still  greater 
pain  from  the  want  of  boots.  One  of  the  Indians,  however,  made 
me  some  sheep-skin  sandals,  which  were  a great  protection  to  my 
cut  and  blistered  feet.  It  was  about  a month  before  I received 
a fresh  and  welcome  supply  of  European  clothing. 

A site  was  soon  cleared  at  Thlagnasinkinmith,  and  buildings 
were  erected  in  native  style,  but  greatly  superior  to  their 
ordinary  shelters.  I built  two  palm  huts  for  myself,  and  we 
laid  out  and  planted  gardens.  But  although  success  had  been 
thus  far  achieved,  yet  I felt  that  there  was  still  a certain  element 
of  distrust  and  fear  of  me  in  the  minds  of  the  natives.  Some 
months  before  our  settling  at  Thlagnasinkinmith  an  old  woman 
became  very  ill  with  fever.  I took  the  case  in  hand,  and  although 
the  Indians  thought  she  was  going  to  die,  yet  within  an  hour  or 
two  after  my  treatment  she  was  apparently  much  better.  This 
gave  me  great  prestige  among  the  people,  but  unfortunately  a 
few  weeks  afterwards  the  Chief’s  infant  child  fell  sick.  When 

43 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


I was  called  to  attend  it,  I found  it  was  suffering  from  acute 
bronchial  pneumonia,  and  past  any  possible  hope  of  recovery. 
The  child  died,  and  the  father  evidently  believed  that  I could 
have  saved  it  if  I had  wished,  and  insinuated  as  much  by 
referring  to  the  case  of  the  old  woman. 

This  unfortunate  incident  had  probably  much  to  do  with 
a later  attempt  to  poison  me.  I was  always  careful  to  clean 
and  fill  my  kettle,  which  served  as  teapot,  and  one  day,  after 
doing  so,  I placed  it  on  the  fire,  and  went  away  till  it  should 
boil.  On  my  return  I found  it  boiling,  and,  quite  contrary  to 
my  usual  custom — I do  not  know  why — I raised  the  lid  and 
looked  inside,  and  there,  to  my  surprise,  1 saw  the  leaves  of 
some  plant  floating  on  the  surface.  On  further  examination  I 
found  quite  a handful  of  these  strange  leaves  inside,  so  I im- 
mediately questioned  the  Indians,  They  all  pretended  to  be 
surprised  and  to  know  nothing  about  it,  saying  that  they  did 
not  even  know  what  plant  it  was.  I had  my  suspicions,  but 
could  do  nothing,  and  so,  cleaning  and  refilling  my  kettle,  I 
stood  by  until  my  tea  was  made. 

After  having  been  about  a month  at  Thlagnasinkinmith,  I 
found  it  necessary  to  send  to  the  river  for  provisions.  At  this 
time  I had  the  one  horse  that  I rode  myself ; I possessed  no 
bullock-waggon  or  pack-animals,  and  anything  I required  to 
bring  out  from  the  river  had  to  be  carried  on  the  backs  of  the 
Indians.  When  acting  thus  as  porters,  they  generally  carried  a 
load  of  from  50  to  60  pounds,  and  travelled  fully  thirty-five 
miles  in  the  day.  Finding  it  necessary,  therefore,  to  send  in  men, 
I selected  a few,  and  they  all  cheerfully  and  instantly  obeyed 
with  the  exception  of  one — Kyitkuk-paisiam  (“the  black  boy”). 
He  not  only  seemed  disinclined  to  go,  but  became  insolent.  He 
asked  me  what  I intended  to  give  him  if  he  went,  and  I told 
him  that  I always  gave  what  was  just  and  proper,  but  that  I 
could  not  allow  him  to  argue  the  point  with  me.  To  this  he 
gave  a defiant  answer,  and  I soon  saw  that  there  was  likely  to 
be  trouble.  I therefore  changed  my  manner.  I looked  him  up 
and  down  before  the  people,  and  asked  him  why  he  objected  to 
go.  He  said  the  road  was  long,  the  burdens  would  be  heavy, 

44 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


and  his  feet  would  become  sore.  “ Oh ! what  a mistake  I 
have  made !”  I replied.  “ I thought  I was  speaking  to  one  of 
the  men,  but  I see  it  is  one  of  the  girls.  Go  away  and  weave 
blankets,  my  girl,”  I said.  “ Of  course,  no  one  could  expect  you 
to  go  all  the  way  to  the  river  and  carry  heavy  burdens.”  Look- 
ing very  angry,  he  went  off  sulking.  His  Chief,  who  was  stand- 
ing near,  said  to  me  : “ Why  don’t  you  beat  him  ?”  I told  him 
that  unless  his  people  would  obey  me  willingly,  I would  go  else- 
where, as  it  was  not  my  object  to  use  force  among  them.  “ I 
will  speak  to  him,”  he  said,  and,  calling  him  up,  he  told  him 
before  all  the  people  that  if  ever  he  spoke  to  me  again  as  he  had 
just  done,  he  would  beat  him  with  a stick.  I afterwards  learnt 
that  this  Chief  was  one  of  the  few  who  still  asserted  the  right  to 
inflict  corporal  punishment  upon  his  people.  The  whole  nation, 
shortly  before  my  arrival,  from  some  cause  which  I have  never 
been  able  to  discover,  had  evidently  become  disorganized,  and 
at  the  present  day,  even  among  the  remoter  villages  which  are 
uninfluenced  by  the  outside  world  and  hardly  touched  by  the 
Mission,  the  process  of  disintegration  and  the  dying  out  of  all 
authority  are  plainly  visible.  From  everything  that  I have 
been  able  to  learn,  the  people  were  at  one  time  completely  under 
subjection  to  their  Chiefs,  and  were  much  more  organized  than 
at  any  time  of  my  acquaintance  with  them. 

Shortly  after  this  threat  on  the  part  of  the  Chief,  the  young 
man  came  to  me,  fully  armed,  and  looking  very  defiant  and 
insolent.  “ Are  you  angry  ?”  he  asked,  in  a tone  as  if  he  would 
like  to  pick  a quarrel.  “ I am  very  angry !”  I replied  curtly, 
and  turned  away,  affecting  to  ignore  him.  He,  to  my  surprise, 
said  in  a perfectly  changed  voice  : “ I am  just  going  to  follow 
the  men  you  have  sent  to  the  river  and  bring  out  your  things.” 
The  Indian  is  often  defiant  enough  so  long  as  he  thinks  he 
can  get  the  better  of  the  matter,  but  he  generally  submits  with 
a good  grace  when  he  finds  that  he  is  opposed  by  a stronger 
will.  The  educated  Indian,  however,  rapidly  acquires  a much 
stronger  will-power.  He  is  also  better  able  to  judge  the  real 
measure  of  the  strength  opposed  to  him,  and  therefore  becomes 
more  difficult  to  manage,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  less 

45 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 


petulant,  less  fickle,  more  reasonable,  and  much  more  trust- 
worthy. It  therefore  requires  a stronger  will  to  govern  the 
educated  Indian  than  is  necessary  to  control  him  in  his  wild 
state. 

I had  from  the  very  first  made  a strong  stand  against  the  people 
taking  to  the  use  of  foreign  liquor,  for,  in  the  first  place,  it  was 
had  liquor,  and,  secondly,  very  much  stronger  and  more  injurious 
than  their  own  intoxicants.  My  efforts  in  this  direction  had  met 
with  a considerable  amount  of  success,  which  was  partly  due  to 
the  fact  that  I strictly  avoided  it  myself.  But  one  day  an 
Indian  thought  he  had  caught  me  in  the  act.  I was  in  my  hut 
pouring  into  a glass  a small  dose  of  a quinine  mixture,  which 
certainly  did  contain  a very  small  percentage  of  alcohol.  It  was 
an  exceedingly  bitter  and  nauseous  concoction,  which  had  been 
recommended  to  me  as  a preventive  against  malarial  fever. 
While  I was  drinking  this  dose,  Pinse-apawa  happened  to  come 
in,  and,  looking  suspicious,  he  took  up  the  bottle  and  smelt  the 
contents.  “ Ah  !”  he  said,  “ this  smells  like  foreign  liquor.” 
I at  once  motioned  to  him  to  be  silent,  for  he  had  a knowing 
look  on  his  face,  as  much  as  to  say,  “ These  things  are  not  good 
for  us,  but  you  can  take  them.”  I told  him  that  if  he  would 
promise  me  to  say  nothing  about  it  to  the  rest,  I would  give 
him  some. 

His  eyes  sparkled  with  delight  as  I poured  him  out  a good 
dose  ; he  instantly  gulped  it  down,  but  almost  as  quickly  threw 
most  of  it  up  again,  and  with  a look  of  intense  disgust  upon  his 
face,  said : “ That  is  not  foreign  liquor.”  He  never  again 
expressed  any  desire  to  taste  my  patent  beverages,  and  I believe 
he  kept  his  promise  of  secrecy. 

My  line  of  action  during  the  early  years  caused  the  Indians  to 
form  many  and  various  impressions  regarding  my  presence  among 
them.  At  first  some  of  them  were  inclined  to  believe  that  I was 
an  ordinary  foreigner  come  to  exploit  their  country  for  timber  or 
anything  else  of  value.  Others,  owing  to  my  evident  desire  to 
be  friendly  with  them,  to  live  as  one  of  them,  and  to  learn  their 
language,  held  that  I must  be  some  great  criminal  who  had  been 
cast  out  of  his  tribe.  Others,  however,  owing  to  the  fact  that, 

46 


PlNSE-TAWA,  A LENGUA  WITCH-DOCTOR 

A good  type  of  a Lengua  witch-doctor’s  face.  Age  about  55.  Pockmarks  and  the  absence  of 
•eyebrows,  eyelashes,  and  all  hair  on  the  face  is  noticeable.  The  Indian  considers  himself 
superior  to  dogs,  horses,  and  other  hairy  animals,  and  gives  this  as  his  reason  for  the  painful 
operation  of  pulling  out  all  hair  on  his  body,  the  top  of  the  head  excepted. 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 

instead  of  being  apologetic,  I assumed  rather  a tone  of  authority, 
and  that  I had  some  strange  customs  which  they  could  not 
understand,  believed  that  I was  a powerful  witch-doctor ; but 
whether  my  presence  would  prove  a benefit  to  them  or  other- 
wise they  were  rather  doubtful.  This  latter  opinion  is  unfor- 
tunately still  held  by  the  more  remote  tribes,  and  in  the  early 
years  it  placed  me  in  many  difficulties  and  no  little  danger. 

The  most  marvellous  powers  have  been  attributed  to  me.  I 
have  been  supposed  to  be  able  to  hypnotize  men  and  animals,  to 
bring  up  the  storms  and  south  winds  at  will,  to  drive  off  sick- 
ness when  I felt  so  inclined,  and  to  be  capable  of  any  amount  of 
endurance  on  account  of  the  wonderful  concoctions  which  I 
possessed.  They  believed  that  I had  the  power  of  the  Evil  Eye, 
and  knowledge  of  the  future ; that  I was  able  to  discover  all 
secrets,  and  to  know  the  movements  of  people  in  different  parts 
of  the  country. 

I was  supposed  to  be  able,  by  my  magic,  to  drive  off  the  game 
from  any  particular  part  of  the  country,  and  to  speak  with  the 
dead  ; in  a word,  to  be  on  the  most  intimate  and  friendly  terms 
with  the  powers  of  darkness.  Even  some  of  the  lower  and  more 
ignorant  Paraguayans  have  had  some  misgivings  about  my 
relationship  with  the  powers  of  evil. 

The  witch-doctors  naturally  regarded  me  as  their  greatest 
opponent,  but  the  common  people  rather  welcomed  me  than 
otherwise,  feeling  that  my  presence  among  them  added  to  their 
strength,  and  gave  them  a position  superior  to  that  of  the 
neighbouring  tribes  and  clans.  When  my  resolve  to  make  a 
cart-road  from  the  River  Paraguay  into  the  interior  was  made 
known  to  the  witch-doctors,  they  were  more  determined  than 
ever  to  get  rid  of  me,  for  they  realized  that  the  accomplishment 
of  this  feat  would  make  my  position  permanent  in  their  country. 
They  accordingly  (so  I was  afterwards  told)  for  three  months 
worked  steadily  for  my  overthrow.  It  seems  that  they  decided 
not  to  resort  to  open  violence,  for  fear  lest  my  disembodied 
spirit  might  be  more  dangerous  and  troublesome  to  them  than  I 
was  when  in  the  body.  At  any  rate,  they  concluded  that  my 
power  of  rapid  movement  would  be  infinitely  increased  thereby. 


EARLY  EXPERIENCES 

But  die  I must — if  not  by  violence,  then  by  their  magic.  My 
friend  Pinse-apawa,  who  knew  of  this  plot,  kindly  warned  me 
of  my  danger,  and  earnestly  endeavoured  to  dissuade  me  from 
attempting  to  take  a bullock-cart  into  the  interior. 

In  spite  of  his  warning,  I proceeded  to  carry  out  my  design, 
and  the  difficulties  of  this  journey,  though  great,  were  eventually 
overcome. 


48 


CHAPTER  V 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHACO  TRIBES 

Padre  Lozano,  one  of  the  early  historians  of  Paraguay,  informs 
us  that  the  Gran  Chaco  was  so  named  from  the  wholesale  flight 
of  the  Peruvians  into  its  fastnesses. 

There  are  various  theories  advanced  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
name  “ Chaco.”  By  some  it  is  held  to  be  a Quichua  word,  the 
Quichuas  being  the  chief  Indian  people  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and 
their  ancestors  having  formed  the  main  bulk  of  the  population 
under  the  sway  of  the  Incas.  This  word  “ Chaco,”  or  “ Chacu,” 
is  supposed  to  have  signified  a drive  of  wild  animals,  or  a hunting 
ground.  There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  Chaco  was  at 
least  known  to  the  Incas,  if  not  actually  dominated  by  them,  for 
the  influence  and  power  of  that  ancient  Indian  Empire  is  well 
known  to  have  been  widespread.  Among  the  various  nations 
inhabiting  the  Chaco,  considerable  degrees  of  intelligence  are  to 
be  met  with,  as  well  as  very  marked  physical  differences.  The 
Palu  and  Kisapang,  for  example,  are  of  a marked  low  type,  and 
even  among  the  other  tribes  the  bulk  of  the  population  is 
evidently  of  a lower  type  than  that  of  the  minority.  Families 
and  groups  are  to  be  met  with  of  lighter  colour,  and  of  finer 
and  more  intelligent  features,  which  strike  one  as  being  of 
foreign  origin.  It  is  therefore  quite  possible  that  Padre 
Lozano’s  statement  is  correct,  and  this  seems  corroborated  by 
the  remarks  of  Dobrizhoffer,1  a Jesuit  father,  who  writes : 
“ After  the  Spaniards  had  obtained  dominion  over  Peru  ...  it 
is  credible  that  the  Peruvians,  to  avoid  this  dreadful  slavery, 
stole  away  wherever  they  could,  and  that  many  of  them  migrated 

1 “ An  Account  of  the  Abiponi  Indians.” 

49 


D 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHACO  TRIBES 

into  the  neighbouring  Tucuman,  and  thence,  for  the  sake  of 
security,  into  the  deserts  of  the  Chaco.” 

If  this  was  so,  it  is  probable  that  the  headlong  flight  of  the 
Peruvians  may  have  given  rise  to  the  name  “ Chaco,”  for,  in 
hastening  to  its  fastnesses,  they  might  well  be  likened  to  frightened 
animals  chased  or  driven  before  the  beaters.  But  it  is  quite  as 
probable,  and  even  more  likely,  that  this  region  received  its  name 
long  before  the  Spanish  Conquest,  on  account  of  the  Inca  armies 
invading  these  lands  in  order  to  chastise  the  inhabitants  for 
depredations  committed  on  the  frontier.  The  savages,  being  no 
match  for  the  trained  Inca  troops,  would  naturally  fly  in  all 
directions,  many  being  overtaken  and  slain,  and  thus  the 
similitude  of  a hunting-drive  would  be  even  more  applicable. 
Some  rather  incline  to  the  idea  that  the  Chaco  was  so  named 
because  the  Peruvians  resorted  thither  for  hunting  purposes  ; but 
when  we  consider  the  distances,  the  inhospitable  nature  of  the 
land,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  a poor  game  country,  I think  this 
theory  carries  little  weight. 

There  are  many  interesting  facts  which  seem  to  point  to  an 
ancient  connection  between  the  Indians  of  the  Chaco  and  the 
Incas.  Their  methods  of  weaving  and  the  patterns  introduced 
in  their  blankets  are  almost  identical  with  those  seen  in  the 
relics  of  ancient  Peru.  This  similarity  is  also  very  marked  in 
the  case  of  the  string  bags  which  they  make  and  use  at  the 
present  day,  and  there  is  some  slight  resemblance  in  their 
pottery.  The  Lengua  Indians  of  the  Chaco  wear  a woven  band 
of  wool  round  the  head,  and  especially  prize  those  ornamented 
with  the  feathers  of  a comparatively  rare  bird.  They  also 
practise  the  boring  of  the  ears  and  the  distending  of  the  lobe  to 
an  enormous  size,  in  order  to  insert  ear-discs  of  light  wood.  On 
some  maps  the  Indians  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lenguas 
are  designated  “Orejones,”  on  account  of  this  custom  of  wearing 
wooden  ear-discs.  Both  these  ornaments  were  highly  prized  by 
the  Peruvians. 

Among  the  superstitions  of  the  Chaco  Indians,  I mention 
three  which  seem  to  point  to  a Peruvian  origin.  They  appeal 
to  the  moon  in  matters  of  marriage,  and  the  moon  was  held  by 

50 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHACO  TRIBES 


the  Peruvians  to  be  the  sister-wife  of  the  sun.  Secondly,  the 
Indians  greatly  fear  the  rainbow  when  seen  in  the  West,  and  the 
armorial  ensign  of  the  Incas  was  the  rainbow.  In  the  third  place, 
referring  to  their  superstitions  connected  with  the  Pleiades, 
Dobrizhoffer  writes  : “ They  [the  Peruvians]  may  have  taught  the 
inhabitants  [of  the  Chaco]  a religious  observance  of  the  Pleiades.” 

The  Indians  assert  that  many  years  ago  one  of  their  large 
tribes  was  ruled  by  a woman,  the  last  of  her  family,  and  that 
this  family  originally  came  from  far  beyond  the  mountains  in  the 
North-West.  It  appears  that  she  was  treated  with  great  respect, 
and  that  she  l'ode  on  a chestnut  horse,  led  by  two  men  on  foot. 
I have  never  heard  of  any  other  case  in  the  least  similar  to  this 
— that  is,  of  any  of  their  Chiefs  ever  assuming  such  regal  state, 
or  of  ruling  over  more  than  one  clan  of  a tribe,  except  in  the 
case  of  a war-chief  in  time  of  war.  Among  the  Lenguas  there 
is  a distinct  trace  of  a superior  people  running  in  a north- 
westerly direction  towards  Peru,  of  fairer  skin,  finer  features, 
greater  intelligence,  and  of  more  self-reliant  and  aggressive 
character.  The  result  of  inquiries  into  the  family  connections 
of  the  people  along  this  north-westerly  line  is  that  they  all 
originated  from  the  same  stock,  and  among  them  I have  found 
traditions  and  beliefs  which  do  not  seem  to  be  generally  held  by 
the  tribes.  It  was  from  this  people  that  I first  won  true  and 
loyal  friends,  and  from  them  we  obtained  our  first  converts  to 
Christianity.  We  found,  too,  that  the  recruits  we  gained  from 
them  were  much  the  ablest  and  most  vigorous  teachers  of  that 
religion. 

Among  the  general  mass  of  the  Indians  there  is  no  clearly 
defined  idea  as  to  the  future  abode  of  their  dead,  but  I have 
been  told  by  representatives  of  the  more  intelligent  people  to 
whom  I have  just  referred,  that  the  souls  of  their  departed  pass 
over  in  a west-north-westerly  direction,  to  what  they  term  the 
“ cities  of  the  dead.”  These  cities  they  describe  as  being  of  con- 
siderable size,  the  houses  being  of  solid  material  (they  think  of 
brick),  and  formed  into  streets  of  great  regularity.  Now  the 
Indian  has  had  no  means  of  realizing  what  a permanently  built 
town  is,  except  what  he  has  seen  in  Paraguay  proper,  but  I have 

51 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHACO  TRIBES 


never  heard  of  the  remotest  idea  being  prevalent  that  deceased 
Indians  had  any  connection  with  Eastern  peoples  or  cities.  The 
Lengua  has  been  a nomad  for  generations,  and  there  is  no  sign  in 
their  country  of  their  ever  having  built  any  permanent  dwelling. 
The  Indian’s  belief  is  that  the  souls  of  the  deceased  continue  to 
live  in  the  spirit-world  much  the  same  life  as  they  did  when  in 
the  body.  How  comes  it,  then,  that  he  should  imagine  that 
the  soul  should  adopt  in  the  after-life  a mode  of  living  of 
which  he  has  had  no  experience  in  this  life?  But  just  as  he 
holds  firmly  to  the  clan  and  tribal  life,  and  avoids  all  connection 
with  peoples  differing  from  himself  in  language  and  blood,  so 
he  believes  that  the  souls  naturally  seek  out  their  friends  and 
ancestors,  and  thus  continue,  as  it  were,  the  national  life  in 
shade-land.  For  the  soul,  therefore,  to  seek  a home  so  utterly 
different  from  that  of  the  deceased  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  his  ancestors  must  have  lived  at  one  time  in  such  cities. 
The  soul  of  the  Lengua  Indian,  in  order  to  reach  these  cities,  must 
perforce  pass  over  many  intervening  tribes  quite  distinct  from 
his  own,  and  regarded  by  him  as  potential  enemies.  How, 
therefore,  can  we  account  for  this  belief,  unless  we  assume  that 
these  Indians  were  at  some  remote  period  connected  with  the 
ancient  cities  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  that  they  have  an  indis- 
tinct tradition  of  the  land  from  which  they  originally  came  ? 

It  may  possibly  be  that  these  particular  Lenguas  are  the  de- 
scendants of  Inca  troops  which  had  been  stationed  on  the  Chaco 
frontier,  or  perhaps  Peruvians  who  had  fled  from  the  Spaniards, 
and  entered  the  Chaco  from  that  direction. 

The  formation  of  the  Chaco  is  such  that  no  mines  of  any 
description  could  be  found  there  ; but  these  Lenguas  have  a , 
distinct  tradition  that  away  on  the  frontier,  far  distant  from 
their  own  country,  and  in  a land  occupied  by  a tribe  unknown 
to  them,  there  exists  a passage  cut  in  the  rocks  which  penetrates 
some  distance  into  the  hillside,  and  in  which  some  valuable 
treasure  lies  hidden.  They  have  described  minutely  to  me  the 
characteristics  of  the  country  around  this  excavation,  and  also 
the  height  and  breadth  of  the  passage,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  made.  It  appeal’s  that  within  living  memory  some 

52 


A North-west  type  of  Lengua 

The  angular  features  and  more  intellectual  face 
point  to  the  probable  Inca  origin  of  the  north- 
west clans. 


A Southern  type  of  Lengua 

Showing  the  more  degraded  features,  distinct 
from  those  of  the  north-west.  The  feather  head- 
dress—the  most  valuable  Lengua  ornament — is 
supposed  to  act  as  a charm,  when  fishing,  against 
the  swamp  “ Kilyikhama." 


Lengua  Boys 

At  the  “ wainkya”  feast,  when  a boy  is  initiated  to  manhood  and  becomes  a warrior,  his  state  is  hence- 
forth indicated  by  the  binding  of  the  forelock  with  red  wool,  after  the  manner  of  a stiff  paint-brush,  into 
which  a feather  ornament  is  inserted.  The  shell  necklace  of  mother-of-pearl  appearance  is  formed  from  the 
swamp  mussel  shell.  Bead  ornaments  are  extensively  worn  by  youths. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHACO  TRIBES 

Indians  penetrated  to  that  place,  and  that  three  entered  the 
secret  passage,  but  never  returned.  The  Indians  told  me  that 
they  were  killed  by  spirits  guarding  the  treasure,  and  that  since 
then  none  of  them  have  ventured  to  repeat  the  experiment. 
They  maintain  great  secrecy  upon  this  subject,  and  I have  been 
the  only  one  to  whom  they  have  disclosed  it ; but  even  to  me 
they  have  not  indicated  the  road  or  the  exact  position.  In  all 
probability  the  three  adventurers  were  suffocated  by  the  pent-up 
gases. 

The  interesting  point,  however,  in  this  story  is  not  the  question 
of  a hidden  treasure,  but  that  these  Indians,  who  have  lived  in  a 
low  swampy  region  for  many  generations,  and  who  never  travel 
far  from  their  own  district  for  fear  of  their  enemies,  should  retain 
such  a vivid  and  clear  account  of  a gallery  cut  by  hand  in  a 
rocky  region  several  hundred  miles  from  their  home.  This  ex- 
cavation does  not  appear  to  have  been  so  much  a mine  as  a place 
tunnelled  out  for  the  reception  of  treasure,  and  we  know  that 
the  Peruvians  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  carried  off  and  secreted 
their  treasure  wherever  possible,  in  order  that  they  should  not 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  rapacious  Spaniards.  Unless  some 
of  these  Indians  had  at  one  time  been  acquainted  with  the 
Peruvians,  and  had  perhaps  formed  part  of  those  who  fled  to 
the  Chaco  fastnesses  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  how  is  it 
possible  to  account  for  these  Indians  having  this  tradition  at  the 
present  day  ? 

A Peruvian  legend  says  that  white  and  bearded  men,  coming 
from  Lake  Titicaca  at  a remote  period,  ruled  over  and  civilized 
the  natives  of  the  land.  A similar  tradition  existed  among  the 
Aztecs  of  Mexico,  which  said  that  Quetzalcoatl  came  from  the 
East,  bringing  like  blessings  to  the  inhabitants,  and  becoming 
their  deity.  Among  the  Chaco  Indians  there  are  also  traditions 
of  a strange  and  wonderful  people  yet  to  come.  A Lengua  named 
Poit,  who  had  travelled  widely,  and  who  was  considered  by  us 
to  be  the  most  intelligent  of  the  Indians,  communicated  to  me 
a version  which  he  said  he  had  received  from  a very  old  wizard 
in  the  far  West  when  he  was  dying.  The  latter  had  heard  of 
our  arrival  and  doings  among  the  Eastern  Lenguas,  and  he 

53 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  CHACO  TRIBES 

closely  questioned  Poit  about  us,  telling  him  that  there  was  a 
tradition  of  their  people  which  said  that  in  the  days  to  come  a 
few  strange  foreigners  would  arrive  among  them,  not  Indians, 
but  yet  speaking  their  language;  that  they  would  reveal  to 
them  the  mysteries  of  the  spirit  world,  and  make  them  a great 
people.  But  he  added  that  if  any  harm  should  befall  these 
foreigners  at  the  hands  of  the  Indians,  dire  calamity  would 
ensue,  and  the  Indian  tribes  would  cease  to  exist.  He  called 
the  expected  foreigners  the  Imlah,  which  is  certainly  not  a 
Lengua  word,  but  is  evidently  of  foreign  origin. 

Can  it  be  that  our  early  successes  with  the  Lenguas  may  be 
somewhat  attributable  to  the  influence  of  this  tradition  ? The 
Indians,  however,  are  very  reticent  on  this  subject,  and,  when 
questioned,  profess  to  know  nothing  at  all  about  it.  It  is  quite 
clear  that  we  must  appear  to  the  Indian  to  fulfil  very  nearly 
this  old  prophecy,  and  it  is  equally  clear  that  if  they  accepted 
it  they  would  be  bound,  according  to  its  statements,  to  obey  us 
in  all  things.  This,  of  course,  would  interfere  with  their  natural 
pleasures  and  inclinations,  the  power  of  their  witch-doctors 
would  be  destroyed,  and  they  would  be  forced  to  adopt  new  and 
unwelcome  habits  and  customs.  It  is  remarkable  that,  before 
we  were  able  to  impart  Christian  teaching  to  them,  numbers 
actually  respected  and  obeyed  us,  and  the  attitude  of  the  whole 
people  towards  us  was  quite  different  from  that  shown  to  the 
ordinary  foreigner.  Since  Christianity  has  taken  a hold  on  them, 
they  naturally  set  aside  these  old  wives’  fables,  and  look  upon 
everything  from  a higher  standpoint.  But  that  the  heathen 
should  attempt  to  cloud  over  this  old  tradition  is  very  reason- 
able, for  the  acceptance  of  it,  as  has  been  shown,  would  not  be 
agreeable  to  them. 

Naturally,  the  whole  subject  of  the  origin  of  these  peoples 
is  based  on  very  slight  foundations  of  tradition,  and,  as  the 
people  possess  no  written  records,  no  monuments,  ruins,  rock- 
paintings,  or  qnipufi  to  refer  to,  any  theory  must  necessarily 
depend  largely  on  supposition.  My  own  opinion  is  that  we  have 
sufficient  reasonable  evidence  to  warrant  us  in  believing  that 
there  is  a decided  strain  of  Peruvian  blood  in  the  Chaco  peoples. 

54 


CHAPTER  VI 
PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 

In  order  to  understand  Indian  life,  it  is  first  of  all  necessary  to 
form  an  idea  of  the  kind  of  country  which  these  people  inhabit 
and  the  climatic  conditions  under  which  they  live.  This  does 
not  necessitate  a knowledge  of  the  actual  geographical  bound- 
aries, geological  formation,  and  other  natural  features ; but  when 
we  read  of  forests  and  vast  palmy  plains,  of  the  rivers  and  park- 
like country  of  the  western  portion,  we  must  not  be  led  away 
by  the  common  delusion  that  all  is  beautiful,  romantic,  and 
delightful,  and  that,  in  the  words  of  the  hymn,  “ Every  prospect 
pleases,  and  only  man  is  vile.”  The  fact  is  that  in  the  Chaco 
Boreal  almost  every  prospect  displeases,  and  the  only  really 
interesting  and  bearable  thing  in  the  country  is  man,  savage, 
wild,  primitive,  and  heathen  as  he  is. 

The  Indian  is  perfectly  suited  to  his  environment ; even  his 
picturesque  costume  and  the  ornamental  painting  with  which 
he  adorns  his  body  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  his  surroundings. 
The  colours  blend  so  beautifully  that  there  is  no  doubt  what- 
ever that  the  Indian  has,  in  a very  great  degree,  the  idea  of 
fitness  and  harmony.  In  order,  therefore,  to  depict  the  country 
in  which  he  lives,  let  us  take  one  or  two  localities  as  illustrations, 
and  try,  by  means  of  a few  word-pictures,  to  present  some  typical 
scenes  to  the  reader’s  eye. 

The  first  is  an  Indian  village,  situated  on  a piece  of  open 
land.  At  a little  distance  to  the  north  flows  a sluggish  river, 
the  current  so  slight  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible.  The  banks 
are  thickly  covered  with  weeds,  bulrush  and  papyrus  rising 
high  above  the  rest,  and  dense  masses  of  floating  water-lilies 

55 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


spread  out  at  the  roots  of  the  trees.  Dark  tree-trunks  which 
have  drifted  down  in  flood-time  rise  here  and  there  out  of  the 
water  like  huge,  ugly  reptiles.  The  stream,  which  is  in  reality 
about  59  feet  wide,  can  only  be  recognized  by  a little  clear 
water  free  from  weeds  in  the  centre.  Close  to  the  bank  is  a 
fringe  of  palm-trees,  which  rear  their  tall  branchless  stems 
40  feet  or  more  into  the  air,  crowned  by  a single  head  of  green, 
fan-like  leaves.  The  remains  of  last  season’s  brilliant  green 
crowns  droop  below  in  a cluster  of  dead  leaves.  A few  shady 
trees  are  dotted  here  and  there,  which  form  a welcome  contrast 
to  some  headless  palms  and  dead  stumps — killed  by  the  de- 
structive palm-beetle.  On  these  gaunt  stems  lazy  water-fowl 
are  perched,  calmly  viewing  the  scene  around  them.  In  the 
water  an  occasional  splash  is  heal’d  as  a sluggish  fish  jumps  at 
a water-insect  or  seeks  to  escape  from  a fierce  foe  beneath.  Here 
and  there  what  seems  a dead  black  log  is  visible,  but  what  in 
reality  is  an  alligator  asleep,  or  slowly  moving  among  the  reeds. 

To  the  south,  about  a mile  from  the  village,  stretches  a line 
of  dense,  dark  forest,  with  small  clumps  of  trees  and  copses  lying 
between.  To  the  east  lies  a long  stretch  of  low,  damp,  grass- 
covered  ground,  thickly  studded  with  fan-leaf  palms.  The 
grass,  unlike  that  of  an  English  meadow,  is  tall  and  rank,  and 
winding  among  the  palm-trees  can  be  seen  a single  track  worn 
by  the  feet  of  men.  To  the  west  stretches  an  immense  ant-hill 
plain,  covering  fifteen  thousand  acres  or  more  of  very  low  land, 
with  two  or  three  inches  of  water  lying  upon  it,  a few  palms, 
and  only  an  occasional  clump  of  trees.  A dreary  waste  is  this, 
thickly  studded  with  ant-hills,  three,  four,  and  even  five,  feet  in 
height,  of  great  hardness,  and  inhabited  by  teeming  millions  of 
industrious  ants.  A clear  blue  sky,  without  a cloud,  spreads  as 
a canopy  above  this  scene,  and  a blazing  sun  pours  down  its 
fiery  rays,  while  the  air  resounds  with  the  croak  of  frogs,  the 
screech  of  water-fowl,  and  the  buzz  of  myriads  of  insects. 

The  Indian  village  close  at  hand  consists  of  two  lines  of  the 
most  primitive  dwellings  imaginable,  constructed  simply  of 
boughs  of  trees  fixed  into  the  ground,  which  are  interlaced 
together,  and  covered  with  grass  and  palm-leaves  loosely  thrown 

56 


Lengua  Villages 

Two  distinct  types  of  shelter  are  hastily  erected.  The  dome-shappd  “ Toldo  " of  branches,  grass, 
and  palm-leaves  is  roughly  thatched  to  the  ground  on  the  south  side — the  stormy  quarter.  The 
reed-matting  “ loldo  is  so  regulated  as  a protection  either  from  the  sun  or  storms. 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


on.  This  rude  shelter  keeps  out  the  torrid  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
to  some  extent  the  tropical  rains.  Little  space  is  allowed  to 
the  family  sheltering  beneath.  The  furniture  consists  of  a few 
household  utensils  of  the  most  primitive  description,  and  skins, 
which  serve  as  seats  by  day  and  beds  by  night.  The  simple 
weapons  of  the  savage  rest  near,  or  are  stuck  into  the  grass  roof 
above.  The  household  fires  of  wood  smoulder  a yard  or  so  in 
front  of  each  shelter.  Women  sit  here  and  there  gently  swinging 
a baby  in  its  string  hammock  or  industriously  spinning.  One 
is  to  be  seen  seated  at  a loom,  made  of  four  branches  of  a tree, 
weaving  a blanket  for  the  master  of  the  house.  The  other 
women  sit  in  little  groups,  passing  round  the  pipe,  and  gossiping 
over  the  news  of  the  day. 

There  is  nothing  sad  or  dull  in  this  little  assembly  ; with 
bright,  cheerful  faces  they  are  enjoying  their  simple  life  perhaps 
more  keenly  for  the  moment  than  their  more  highly-cultivated 
and  civilized  sisters.  Two  or  three  old  men  are  about ; one  of 
extreme  age  is  sitting  cross-legged  on  his  mat,  apparently 
thinking  of  nothing.  Troublesome  stinging  flies  are  buzzing 
round  his  naked  body,  which  he  occasionally  flicks  off  with  a 
piece  of  hide  fastened  to  the  end  of  a thin  stick,  which  enables 
him  to  reach  those  which  try  to  settle  on  remote  parts  of  his 
back.  A few  children — very  few,  it  must  be  admitted — disport 
themselves  around  the  booths  in  Nature’s  garb.  As  it  is  mid- 
day, the  few  sheep  and  goats  are  resting  here  and  there  in  the 
shade  lazily  chewing  the  cud.  The  men  and  lads  are  out  hunting, 
some  in  the  forest  for  the  honey,  of  which  the  people  are  so 
fond,  and  which  they  collect  in  skin  bags — comb,  larvae,  young 
bees,  and  all.  Others  are  out  on  the  great  ant-hill  plain  in 
pursuit  of  the  ostrich  or  the  deer,  while  the  rest  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  distance  by  the  river-bank  with  hook  and  line,  the  hand- 
net  or  the  fish-trap,  and  some  even  with  bow  and  arrow,  seeking 
for  the  large  fish  that  play  in  the  shallow  waters. 

Now  let  us  watch  them  after  the  sun  has  set.  The  scene  has 
entirely  changed.  The  flies,  the  pest  of  the  daytime,  have  dis- 
appeared, but  their  place  has  been  taken  by  thick  swarms  of 
mosquitos,  which  make  life  intolerable  even  to  Indians,  though 

57 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


they  are  somewhat  kept  in  check  by  the  clouds  of  smoke  rising 
from  the  fires  placed  to  windward.  All  are  now  busy  cooking 
or  eating,  for  they  have  partaken  of  little  food  throughout  the 
day.  The  fires  are  fed  anew,  and  throw  a glare  around,  which 
lights  up  the  forms  of  these  strangely  attired  and  painted 
savages,  with  their  white  ostrich-feathers  gracefully  waving  to 
and  fro.  The  dense  forest  in  the  background,  with  the  stately 
heads  of  the  palms  silhouetted  against  the  clear  tropical  sky, 
brilliant  with  stars,  completes  the  picture,  which  words  are 
inadequate  to  describe. 

How  different  a few  weeks  hence  ! A visitor  to  this  village 
will  find  it  abandoned,  only  the  charred  skeletons  of  the  booths 
remaining  to  tell  the  tale  that  a death  has  taken  place,  and  that, 
for  fear  of  the  spirit  of  the  departed,  the  people  have  fled  to  a 
less  uncanny  spot,  where  they  will  be  free  from  ghostly  visitants. 

The  scene  is  changed  to  a great  swamp,  with  little  islands 
dotted  about,  and  on  one  of  these  stands  a similar  Indian 
village.  But  here  the  surroundings  are  very  different  from  those 
described  in  the  last  picture.  The  village  is  near  the  edge  of 
the  swamp,  which  is  fully  twenty  miles  in  length  and  from  one 
to  four  miles  in  width.  The  water  on  the  average  is  waist-deep, 
but  in  places  the  traveller  is  forced  to  swim,  and  this  with  great 
difficulty,  owing  to  the  matted  and  tangled  vegetation.  The 
bulrush  and  papyrus  are  found  everywhere,  and  dozens  of  other 
water-plants  are  interlaced  in  an  impenetrable  mass,  some  of 
which  are  thorny  and  lacerate  the  flesh.  Progress  is  impossible 
in  this  swamp,  except  along  the  narrow  paths  which  have  been 
made  by  the  natives.  Once  off  the  high  ground  and  in  the 
swamp,  the  tall  reeds,  towering  on  all  sides  high  above  one’s 
head,  make  it  utterly  impossible  to  see  anything  but  the  sky, 
and  here  the  uninitiated  would  soon  lose  their  way.  Neither  is 
travel  in  such  a wilderness  altogether  free  from  danger.  Large 
water  snakes,  and  not  infrequently  alligators,  are  to  be  found, 
and  occasionally  even  venomous  snakes  are  met  with,  coiled  up 
on  the  matted  undergrowth,  their  forms,  owing  to  the  similarity 
of  the  colours,  being  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  vegetation. 

The  island  is  quite  unlike  the  mainland — no  open  grass  plain, 

58 


Method  of  Conveying  Goods  across  a Swamp 

A raw  cow-hide  with  the  corners  tied  up  serves  as  a raft,  steadied  by  palms  attached  to  the  sides  for  heavy  loads.  The  scenery  is  typical  of 
the  Chaco,  showing  the  palm  belt  and  dense  swamp  vegetation.  Alligators,  fish,  water-snakes,  frogs,  birds,  and  insect  life  abound  in  the  swamps, 
which  cover  immense  areas  for  long  periods,  but  entirely  disappear  during  prolonged  droughts. 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


no  dense  forest,  but  thick  undergrowth  and  scrubby  trees,  with 
a fringe  of  palms  encircling  the  whole.  Here,  after  making  a 
clearing,  the  Indians  find  it  profitable  to  plant  their  gardens,  for 
it  is  one  of  the  few  spots  possessing  a rich  soil,  and  the  vicinity 
of  the  swamp  supplies  them  with  an  abundance  of  fish  and 
waterfowl.  Nor  are  they  averse  from  dining  upon  the  large  water- 
snakes.  Naturally,  from  the  position  of  this  village,  the  insect 
pests  are  infinitely  worse  than  in  the  one  last  described,  but  the 
facility  of  obtaining  food  is  a great  consideration.  Such  a place 
is  dreary  in  the  extreme,  and  especially  on  cold,  cloudy,  and  wet 
days,  when  the  poor  inhabitants  huddle  together  or  crouch  for 
warmth  over  their  fires,  seemingly  bereft  of  all  life  and  energy. 

My  last  picture  is  that  of  a country  covered  with  dense  forest, 
where  there  are  few  open  spaces,  and  these  of  small  extent.  A 
village,  similar  to  the  two  already  mentioned,  is  situated  in  one 
of  these  small  open  plots.  A tragedy  is  being  enacted  here,  for 
smallpox  of  a very  virulent  type  has  seized  upon  this  little 
isolated  party  of  our  fellow-creatures.  One  by  one  they  are 
stricken  down,  and  can  be  seen  lying  helpless  on  the  ground 
where  they  have  fallen,  and  on  the  surrounding  trees  are  perched 
the  heralds  of  death,  clusters  of  grim-looking  vultures,  only 
biding  their  time,  and  adding  terror  to  the  sufferers  below.  A 
death  takes  place,  and  is  followed  by  the  cruel  customs  attendant 
upon  heathenism.  Grief,  deep  and  real,  lies  in  the  hearts  of  the 
bereaved  relatives.  Those  whom  they  have  loved — and  they  can 
love — have  been  taken  from  them.  One  by  one  they  see  them 
laid  away  out  of  sight  in  the  dark  forest,  till  few  are  left  behind. 
To  them  there  is  no  hope  of  a happy  future  in  the  hereafter,  no 
idea  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  The  only  future  that  they 
do  believe  in  is  that  of  a shade-land,  dark,  mysterious  and  for- 
bidding. It  is  a heart-rending  scene  to  witness  four  Indians, 
already  stricken  with  the  fell  disease,  and  in  a weak  state, 
tottering  under  the  burden  of  a dead  comrade  whom  they  are 
bearing  to  the  forest  for  burial.  First  one,  then  another,  falls 
down  exhausted,  only  to  return  to  his  burden  to  fall  again,  and 
this  for  the  last  time.  Still  more  heart-rending  is  it  to  see  one 
of  the  few  lingering  survivors,  a mother,  lying  prostrate  in  the 

59 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


last  stages  of  the  disease.  A few  yards  away  is  the  dead  un- 
buried body  of  her  infant  child,  surrounded  by  vultures  fighting 
for  their  prey,  while  she,  having  in  desperation  roused  herself, 
is  feebly  and  in  vain  throwing  at  them  any  missile  within  her 
reach. 

How  often  do  we  hear  even  travellers  asserting  that  it  is  a 
pity  to  attempt  to  alter  the  lives  of  these  happy  children  of 
Nature,  who  know  no  care,  no  anxiety,  and  who,  if  left  to  them- 
selves, would  lead  a happy  butterfly  existence.  To  the  casual 
observer  they  may  appear  to  lead  a careless,  simple  and  thought- 
less life ; but  to  the  few,  the  very  few,  who  have  actually  for 
years  lived  their  life  with  them  in  all  its  phases,  and  understand 
it  in  its  inmost  intricacies,  to  them  only  is  the  real  state  of 
things  known. 

To  the  Indian  this  world  is  no  Utopia,  and  he  requires  the 
hope  of  a better  life  as  much  as  the  most  wretched,  degraded, 
and  hopeless  of  our  submerged  populations  in  Europe.  I 
frequently  wonder  how  men  who  only  pay  a flying  visit  to  such 
a people,  and  who  never  stop  to  study  the  tribes,  their  language, 
or  their  condition,  can  write  and  talk  with  calm  authority  upon 
a subject  which  demands  from  anyone  who  would  form  a true 
estimate  and  opinion  almost  a life-time  of  patient  research. 
The  wild  animals  of  the  forest,  the  evil,  slimy  denizens  of  the 
swamps  and  rivers,  are  little  or  nothing  to  these  children  of 
Nature.  The  terror  that  haunts  them  by  day  and  night  is  that 
of  the  spiritual,  the  powers  of  demons,  the  dread  of  the  future. 
The  Indian  is,  above  all  things,  reticent  about  his  views  of  the 
spirit-world,  but  in  reality  it  is  an  all-absorbing  subject  to  him. 
It  is  only  when  his  confidence  has  been  won  that  he  will  discuss 
with  you  the  question  of  the  after-life. 

But  now,  after  this  digression,  let  us  return  to  the  present 
life.  The  Indian  is  a nomad,  unable  to  remain  long  in  any  one 
place,  for  he  is  driven  by  resistless  forces  from  one  part  of  the 
country  to  another.  The  seasons  are  never  certain  ; for  nearly 
two  years  at  a stretch  I have  known  vast  regions  almost  water- 
less. Consequently  the  game  are  compelled  to  seek  in  distant 
parts  for  the  little  water  that  is  left,  and  the  Indian  perforce 

60 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


must  follow  it.  Gardens  cease  to  produce  harvests,  the  swamps 
and  rivers  are  dry,  and  fish  are  unobtainable.  Various  kinds 
bury  themselves  deep  in  the  mud  at  the  approach  of  drought. 
Eggs  are  deposited,  and  not  till  much-wished-for  rains  fall  do 
they  once  more  spring  into  life,  multiply  rapidly,  and  teem  as 
formerly. 

But  it  is  not  only  the  necessity  of  obtaining  a livelihood  that 
forces  the  Indian  to  wander.  He  is  driven,  as  it  were,  by  a 
restless  spirit,  the  result  of  generations  of  hard  and  peculiar 
circumstances  fixing  a habit  upon  him  which  becomes  second 
nature,  and  he  finds  it  impossible,  even  when  not  impelled  by 
necessity,  to  remain  long  in  any  one  place.  And  a power  as 
great  as  the  necessity  of  providing  for  his  physical  needs  is  the 
dread  of  ghosts  and  spirits.  As  soon  as  a place  becomes  haunted 
he  must  move.  He  is,  however,  not  altogether  morose,  or  prone 
to  despondency  and  sadness.  On  the  contrary,  he  is  extremely 
sociable,  and  as  the  sons  of  Job  the  Patriarch  went  to  and  fro 
feasting  in  each  other’s  houses,  so  the  Indian,  when  opportunity 
occurs  and  food  is  obtainable,  delights  to  move  from  clan  to 
clan,  feasting  and  making  merry.  The  children,  the  few  there 
are,  enjoy  life  as  all  children  do,  and  in  their  games  they  closely 
resemble  the  little  ones  at  home.  The  feelings  and  instincts  of 
the  Indian  are  thoroughly  human,  with  this  advantage,  that  he 
is  more  simple,  has  no  veneer,  and  is  probably  on  the  whole  less 
hypocritical  than  his  more  cultured  brethren  in  other  lands. 

Unless  something  stirring  is  on  in  the  village,  such  as  a feast 
or  a ghost  scare,  or  visitors  or  sickness,  the  Indian  generally 
retires  to  rest  between  9 and  10  p.m.  His  preparations  are  of 
the  simplest.  He  makes  up  the  fire,  pulls  his  skin  mat  towards 
it,  and,  joining  three  or  four  mats  together  with  a palm-log  at 
one  end  for  a pillow,  he  lies  down  without  any  change  of 
garment  or  other  preparations ; and  if  the  night  is  cold  or  the 
mosquitos  particularly  bad,  he  tucks  his  feet  up  under  his 
blanket,  covers  his  face  with  it  also,  and  in  a few  minutes  is 
sound  asleep. 

Unless  it  is  raining,  they  invariably  sleep  out  in  the  open, 
with  nothing  but  the  blue  vault  of  heaven  above  them.  They 

61 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


do  not,  however,  slumber  steadily  the  whole  night  through,  as 
we  do,  but  rise  at  intervals,  sit  up  at  the  fire,  light  a pipe,  and 
have  a chat,  and  then  retire  to  sleep  again.  The  necessity  for 
keeping  the  fires  constantly  going  requires  that  someone  should 
be  about.  They  also  feel  the  need  during  the  night  of  some 
refreshment — a pound  or  so  of  meat,  or  a couple  of  boiled  fish. 

Another  reason  for  this  restlessness  is  undoubtedly  the  neces- 
sity of  being  continually  on  guard  against  danger.  Although  I 
have  for  years  from  preference  journeyed  by  night  to  avoid  the 
hot  sun,  I have  never  yet  succeeded  in  entering  a village  when  no 
one  was  about.  The  dogs,  of  course,  oftentimes  numbering  three 
to  evexy  Indian,  give  instant  alarm  ; but,  as  all  night  through 
they  are  fighting  with  each  othei’,  rushing  off'  and  barking  at  some 
passing  fox  or  wolf,  or  howling  when  they  hear  the  distant  roar 
of  a jaguar,  they  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  as  discreet  watch- 
dogs ; the  Indian  could  never  be  warned  of  the  approach  of 
man  from  the  alarm  of  dogs  alone.  These  animals  are  certainly 
very  useful  at  night  in  keeping  off  foxes,  tiger-cats,  and  such 
creatures.  They  also  give  the  alarm  by  making  a peculiar  noise 
when  they  scent  either  the  jaguar  or  the  puma,  the  only  two 
animals  which  they  really  fear.  They  are  the  friends  of  man, 
indeed,  but  the  Indian  is  certainly  not  particularly  their  friend. 
They  generally  have  to  struggle  for  their  own  existence,  and  are 
so  perpetually  hungry  that  you  dare  not  leave  your  saddle  gear, 
boots,  or  belt  within  their  reach.  The  only  notice  taken  of 
them  by  their  masters  is  a blow,  a kick,  or  a piece  of  fire-brand 
hurled  at  them.  The  Indian,  however,  will  never  kill  his  dogs, 
out  of  respect  for  their  spirits.  The  Chaco  dog  is  of  no  par- 
ticular breed  ; you  find  them  of  all  sizes,  coloui's,  and  descrip- 
tions, but  all  are  thin,  and  more  than  half-starved,  savage,  and 
very  treachei’ous. 

Having  found,  then,  that  the  dogs  prove  unreliable  sentinels, 
the  natives  themselves  feel  bound  to  keep  a watch  upon  their 
own  safety.  An  attacking  party  has  to  exercise  the  greatest 
possible  caution  and  ci’aft  in  approaching  an  Indian  encampment. 
Beyond  the  ordinary  disturbances  to  the  peace  of  the  village, 
dreams  perhaps  play  the  most  prominent  pai't  in  disturbing 

62 


Locusts 

(a)  Locusts  in  the  hopping  stage,  before  the  development  of  wings. 

(3)  Hoppers  as  a carpet  on  the  ground,  and  winged  locusts  clustering  in  bunches  on  a tree, 
giving  the  appearance  of  foliage: 

(c)  Trees  without  foliage,  showing  the  devastation  of  a flight  of  locusts.  Fallen  palm  trunks 
and  the  foreground  are  covered  with  hoppers. 

The  Gran  Chaco  is  the  breeding-ground  of  these  pests,  which  are  equally  destructive  in  either 
stage  of  their  development.  A flight  of  locusts  seen  on  the  horizon  gives  the  appearance  of  a 
storm-cloud  of  a brick-red  hue. 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


the  quiet  of  night.  In  the  dead  silence  suddenly  up  starts 
a man  with  a cry,  and,  proceeding  to  rattle  his  gourd  and 
chant  a dismal  tune,  he  seeks  to  scare  off  the  spirit  which  has 
disturbed  his  slumbers.  Nocturnal  life,  therefore,  in  an 
Indian  village,  although  it  seems  so  picturesque,  strange,  and 
romantic,  must  not  be  regarded  as  without  its  drawbacks. 
Occasionally  a venomous  snake  will  intrude  its  unwelcome 
presence  among  the  sleepers,  and  sometimes  Indians  have  died 
from  the  bite  of  such  visitants.  A wolf,  the  great  solitary 
maned  wolf  of  the  Chaco,  will,  in  spite  of  the  dogs,  venture  so 
close  as  to  cause  a start  to  the  freshly  awakened  sleeper,  who 
sees  its  gaunt  form  in  the  dim  light,  perhaps  not  more  than 
twenty  yards  off. 

But  the  discomforts  of  an  Indian  “ toldo  ” (hut),  especially  at 
night,  do  not  lie  so  much  in  the  greater  dangers  as  in  the  smaller 
pests.  Fleas  especially  swarm  at  seasons,  and  little  rest  is  then 
obtained.  The  traveller  turns  restlessly  from  side  to  side,  and 
one  can  quite  imagine  the  discomfort  when  his  share  of  these 
troublesome  insects  is  perhaps  not  less  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  for  the  night.  This  is  no  exaggeration,  because  actual 
observation  has  been  made,  and  I am  perfectly  sure  that  I am 
putting  it  at  the  lowest  computation.  Not  only  are  the 
mosquitos  in  themselves  more  than  a sufficient  plague,  but 
the  Indian  is  also  afflicted  by  the  garapata  or  tick,  which 
frequently  causes  a painful  sore  lasting  for  months.  The  sand- 
flies, too,  some  of  them  so  small  as  hardly  to  be  perceptible  with 
the  naked  eye,  are  exceedingly  irritating.  Only  mosquito-nets 
of  calico  will  keep  out  these  minute  insects ; an  ordinary  open- 
mesh  net  would  be  useless. 

The  reader  can  perhaps  realize  what  it  is  to  endeavour  to  sleep 
in  such  a climate,  with  the  thermometer  as  high  as  90°  Fahr. 
even  at  night,  under  a low  net  of  material  as  thick  and  close  as 
an  ordinary  handkerchief.  And  this  net,  perhaps  the  greater  of 
two  evils,  the  Indian  in  his  primitive  life  does  not  possess. 
I have  often  been  aroused  by  a sort  of  stampede  of  the  sheep 
and  goats,  who,  being  irritated  by  the  insects,  or  alarmed  by  the 
fighting  of  the  dogs,  were  rushing  in  and  out  among  the  booths, 

63 


PRIMITIVE  INDIAN  LIFE 


and  more  than  once  I have  been  awakened  by  my  net  being 
charged,  to  see  the  head  of  an  old  billy-goat  looking  into  my 
face  and  the  mosquitos  entering  in  swarms  at  the  gap  he  had 
made. 

When  there  is  no  moon,  the  Indians  depend  almost  entirely 
on  the  glow  of  their  fires  for  light,  but  they  also  make  torches 
of  palm-leaves,  which  give  a bright  light  for  the  short  time  they 
last.  Occasionally  they  improvise  rough  candles  of  wax,  which 
give  but  a faint  and  flickering  light.  The  palo  santo  tree, 
which  is  to  be  found  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  contains  a 
large  amount  of  resin,  and  a piece  of  it  put  upon  the  fire  will 
burn  up  with  a bright  flame,  and  give  a more  lasting  light ; 
neither  does  it  require  fanning  or  other  attention. 

It  may  be  gathered  from  this  brief  and  cursory  glance  at  the 
Indians’  primitive  existence  that  it  is  by  no  means  “the  simple 
life 11  he  is  often  credited  with  living.  Many  more  of  its  phases 
are  dealt  with  in  subsequent  chapters,  but  I do  not  propose  to 
exhaust  the  subject  in  this  book,  for  there  is  much  that  for 
obvious  reasons  cannot  possibly  be  published. 


A DECORATED  WOODEN  WHISTLE  WORN  ROUND  THE  NECK, 


64 


CHAPTER  VII 
ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

The  conditions  and  circumstances  under  which  the  Chaco 
Indian  lives  are  somewhat  peculiar,  and  do  not  tend  to  make  an 
industrious  people.  The  climate  is  in  many  ways  trying  and 
enervating;  Hood  and  drought  alternate  with  but  few  intervals 
of  normal  weather ; the  insect  pests  make  life  at  times  almost 
intolerable ; the  country  produces  practically  nothing  of  work- 
able value  ; for  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  north,  south,  and  west 
stretch  tracts  of  undeveloped  country  in  the  hands  of  tribes 
quite  as  primitive  as  the  Lenguas,  and  the  road  to  civilization 
on  the  east  is  closed  by  the  River  Paraguay,  which  has  been  for 
centuries  a line  of  demarcation  between  the  Chaco  tribes  and  the 
Paraguayans,  mutual  fear  or  distrust  perhaps  more  than  hostility 
preventing  communication  between  the  two.  These  hindrances, 
together  with  the  Indians1  nomadic  habits,  their  Socialism,  and 
many  other  characteristics,  are  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
paucity  of  Chaco  industries  on  any  large  scale. 

It  must  not  be  thought  from  these  remarks  that  the  Indians 
are  a lazy  people.  Judging  them  from  their  own  standpoint 
and  the  primitive  life  they  lead,  with  its  proportionately  few 
demands  and  its  many  difficulties,  I feel  justified  in  saying  that 
they  are  an  industrious  race.  Time  is  certainly  no  object  with 
them,  and  little  system  is  observed  in  their  daily  routine,  but 
from  their  lack  of  resources,  and  the  crude  tools  and  implements 
at  their  disposal,  much  time  is  necessarily  spent,  and  great 
patience  has  to  be  exercised,  in  providing  for  their  few  daily 
wants. 

Therefore,  in  forming  a fair  estimate  of  their  work,  the  trying 

65  e 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


conditions  under  which  they  labour  must  be  taken  into  account. 
Hunting,  for  example,  which  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  men, 
is  by  no  means  a pastime  or  recreation,  but  a serious,  onerous, 
and  often  dangerous  undertaking.  It  is  indeed  a great  task  of 
endurance,  for  they  have  to  spend  hours  in  search  of  game, 
exposed  to  a tropical  sun  and  myriads  of  poisonous  insects,  at 
one  time  wading  in  swamps,  their  flesh  cut  and  torn  by  the  long, 
spiny  and  razor-edged  grass,  at  another  cutting  their  way 
through  dense  and  thorny  undergrowth  in  the  forests. 

The  women  are  by  no  means  drudges,  as  is  so  often  the  case 
amongst  aborigines,  although  they  might  appear  so  to  the  super- 
ficial observer ; in  reality,  the  men  do  their  fair  share  of  the 
work,  but  it  is  not  seen  to  such  advantage  as  that  of  the 
women. 

In  describing  the  various  processes  employed  in  their  indus- 
tries, I will  confine  myself  to  the  most  important,  and  those 
likely  to  be  interesting  to  the  reader. 

The  longest  and  most  tedious  work  which  falls  to  the  lot  of 
an  Indian  woman  is  that  of  producing  a blanket  for  her  husband, 
which  constitutes  his  only  garment,  and  is  made  entirely  of 
wool.  Sheep  are  scarce  and  of  poor  quality,  owing  to  the  flat 
and  swampy  nature  of  the  country,  and  as  the  Indian  is  not 
given  to  thrift,  he  often  falls  back  on  his  small  flock  to  supply 
any  shortage  of  rations. 

Shearing  is  done  in  a crude  manner  with  an  ordinary  knife. 
The  process  of  washing  the  wool  is  very  simple : the  fleeces  are 
placed  upon  platforms  of  palms  or  upon  bushes,  where  they  are 
left  until  sufficiently  cleansed  by  the  rain  and  bleached  by  the 
sun.  The  women  are  careful  to  pick  out  all  knots  and  other 
irregularities  before  spinning.  When  this  is  accomplished,  they 
spread  the  fleece  out  on  reed  matting,  and  sit  down  tailor-wise 
to  their  work.  First  the  wool  is  teased  out  into  a long  hank, 
which  is  wound  round  the  right  wrist  and  passed  over  the  fore- 
finger. A portion  is  regulated  to  a certain  thickness,  and  then 
attached  by  a knot  to  a spindle,  consisting  of  a thin,  straight 
piece  of  hard  wood,  the  pointed  end  of  which  is  passed  through 
a small  gourd.  The  strand  of  wool  between  the  forefinger  and 

66 


Section  of  a Lengua  Woollen  Blanket 

The  only  male  attire.  The  whole  process  of  manufacture  is  the  work  of  the  women, 
and  the  result  is  remarkable  considering  the  primitive  materials  at  their  disposal. 
Various  designs  are  introduced  denoting  snakes'  skins,  palms,  cross-roads,  etc.,  and 
in  some  cases  there  is  a striking  resemblance  to  Inca  designs — pointing  to  the  possible 
origin  of  the  Lenguas. 


Blanket  Weaving 

The  most  primitive  loom  in  the  world.  Two  forked  uprights  and  two  horizontal 
branches.  Upon  this  crude  frame  woollen  blankets  of  very  even  and  fine  texture  are 
woven. 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

the  knot  is  spun  by  giving  the  spindle  a sharp  twist,  and 
allowing  it  to  turn  in  the  air  or  on  a smooth  pigskin,  the 
woman  meanwhile  removing  all  irregularities  until  an  even 
thickness  is  obtained.  She  repeats  the  process  until  her  spindle 
is  full,  occasionally  rubbing  her  fingers  with  wood  ashes.  After 
the  spun  thread  has  been  wound  into  a ball  for  convenience,  two 
or  more  strands  are  respun  to  the  required  thickness. 

They  dye  their  wool  in  order  to  introduce  patterns  into  their 
weaving.  Black  and  white  are  obtained  from  the  natural  wool. 
Reds  are  procured  from  the  cochineal  insect  and  from  the  bulb 
of  a small  crocus-like  flower,  which  yields  a deep  ruby  colour. 
Various  barks  afford  yellows  and  browns,  but  greens  and  blues 
are  not  found. 

The  loom  is  of  a most  primitive  description,  formed  by  placing 
two  forked  branches  in  the  ground  in  an  upright  position.  A 
cross-pole  is  fixed  in  the  forks  above,  and  another  is  tied  below 
near  the  ground,  barely  sufficient  space  being  allowed  for  the 
ball  of  yarn  to  pass  between — indeed,  a hole  is  usually  scooped 
in  the  ground  for  this  purpose.  As  the  woman  sits  on  the 
ground,  she  can  just  reach  to  drop  the  ball  of  wool  over  the  top 
pole  and  catch  it  as  it  falls ; she  then  passes  it  underneath  the 
lower  one,  and  repeats  the  operation  till  the  warp  is  finished. 
The  threads  are  placed  closely  side  by  side,  much  care  being 
taken  in  forming  regular  lines  of  coloured  wool  to  produce  the 
chosen  pattern.  By  an  ingenious  contrivance  of  loops  of  wool, 
which  pass  across  the  entire  face  of  the  warp  in  a continuous 
line  and  pick  up  each  alternate  strand,  the  weaver  is  able  to 
separate  them,  and  pass  a fine  cane  between  the  divided  threads. 
The  shuttle  is  the  ball  of  wool,  which  is  passed  between  the 
warp  threads  as  far  as  can  be  conveniently  reached.  The  woof 
thread  is  then  battened  down  into  place  with  a short,  smooth- 
pointed  stick.  This  is  done  in  sections  of  about  twelve  inches 
at  a time,  until  the  whole  face  of  the  web  has  been  traversed. 
On  this  crude  loom  a web  7 feet  6 inches  X 6 feet  6 inches  can 
be  produced. 

Various  patterns  are  introduced  into  the  coloured  warp,  such 
as  checks,  circles,  angles,  the  legs  of  the  jabiru,  and  designs 

67 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


in  imitation  of  snakes’  skins.  Considering  the  poorness  of  the 
Indian’s  arithmetical  capabilities,  these  devices  are  very  regu- 
lai'ly  carried  out.  Districts  have  their  distinctive  patterns  or 
colour,  and  it  is  easy  to  recognize  the  locality  from  which  a 
visitor  comes  by  his  blanket. 

Woollen  waist-belts,  satchels,  head-bands,  bracelets,  and,  in 
an  adjoining  tribe,  sleeveless  shirts  are  woven  on  a smaller  loom. 
The  Suhin  and  Toothli  tribes,  in  the  Western  Chaco,  are  noted 
for  the  fine  texture  of  their  blankets,  which  are  difficult  to 
procure,  a mare  or  a gun  being  generally  asked  in  exchange 
for  one. 

Cotton  is  seldom  used  by  the  Lenguas  as  a substitute  for 
wool,  but  it  is  more  largely  found  among  the  tribes  further 
west  and  north. 

String,  which  is  obtained  from  the  fibres  of  the  caraguata 
plant,  is  made  up  into  satchels,  large  net-bags,  waist-bags,  and 
hammocks.  Two  species  of  the  plant  are  resorted  to,  some 
preferring  the  long  fibres  of  one  variety,  others  those  of  a 
shorter  one.  The  fibre  is  separated  by  being  tightly  run  to  and 
fro  through  a loop  of  string,  which  takes  off  the  outer  sheathing 
of  the  leaves,  and  afterwards  it  is  tied  in  bunches  and  dried  in 
the  sun. 

The  spinning  is  done  on  the  naked  thigh,  the  number  of 
strands  varying  according  to  the  purpose  of  the  thread.  The 
fine  string  used  in  netting  and  satchel-making  consists  of  only 
two  strands.  For  stronger  articles  three  strands  are  rolled 
together,  each  of  which  is  made  of  three  smaller  ones. 

The  string  is  dyed  in  many  colours,  and  the  patterns  intro- 
duced are  various  and  intricate.  The  best  specimens  are  to  be 
found  in  the  sleeveless  shirts  worn  in  the  West,  which  serve  as 
armour  in  tribal  wars.  The  texture  is  very  close  considering 
the  nature  of  the  material,  and,  being  of  a raised  and  ribbed 
formation,  it  offers  a fair  resistance  to  a slanting  arrow-head. 

Bone  and  hard-wood  needles  are  used  in  bag-making ; but 
netting  is  accomplished  without  the  aid  of  a mesh-stick,  the 
finger  and  thumb  taking  its  place. 

Both  sexes  employ  themselves  in  making  the  string  but  the 

68 


Lengua  Woman  Spinning  Wool  for  a Blanket 

The  thin  spindle-stick  of  hard  wood  with  a small  gourd  at  the  base  is  the  only 
instrument  employed  in  the  process. 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


manufacture  of  the  articles  is,  like  blanket-making,  exclusively 
the  women’s  work. 

The  only  garment  worn  by  a woman  is  a skin  petticoat, 
except  in  the  very  cold  weather,  when  she  wraps  her  whole  body 
in  a large  mantle,  made  by  sewing  together  a number  of  skins, 
either  of  the  nutria  (a  species  of  otter),  sheep,  small  deer,  or 
fox,  wearing  it  with  the  hairy  side  next  to  the  body.  The 
petticoat  is  sufficiently  large  to  reach  one  and  a half  times 
round  the  hips,  and  falls  to  a little  below  the  knees.  The 
double  fold  runs  down  the  front,  and  a woollen  belt  serves 
to  fasten  it.  In  the  rough  conditions  of  Indian  life,  these 
skirts,  being  washable,  are  particularly  serviceable  garments,  and 
wear  for  many  years.  They  are  made  from  the  skins  of  goats, 
sheep,  or  the  smaller  deer,  and  the  longer  they  are  worn  the 
softer  they  become. 

They  are  not  tanned,  and  the  process  of  manufacture  is  a 
tedious  one,  owing  to  the  primitive  nature  of  Indian  appliances. 
After  the  hair  has  been  scraped  off  with  a pointed  stick,  the 
softening  is  produced  by  bending  the  skin  over,  and  pressing 
the  fold  firmly  down  with  a sharp  snail-shell.  The  bends  are 
made  at  distances  of  about  half  an  inch  from  each  other,  in 
a diagonal  pattern  across  the  whole  length  of  the  skin,  after 
which  the  surfaces  are  rubbed  together,  and  a mixture  of  wood- 
ashes  and  water  is  applied.  Both  surfaces  of  the  skin  are  treated 
in  this  way.  Two  or  three  hides  are  then  sewn  together  to 
form  the  skirt,  and  the  ends  are  fringed  with  patterns  worked 
in  red  paint. 

The  whole  process  is  done  exclusively  by  the  women,  who 
bestow  much  time  and  care  in  making  their  own,  their  husbands’ 
and  children’s  garments,  a large  blanket  often  taking  four 
months  to  complete.  What  with  their  many  other  duties,  such 
as  making  pottery  and  fans,  cooking,  procuring  palm -cabbages, 
roots,  and  other  food  supplies,  together  with  the  work  entailed 
in  constantly  moving  from  place  to  place,  their  day  is  fully 
occupied. 

The  man’s  blanket  is  a cumbersome  garment,  and  he  often 
discards  it  in  warm  weather  when  sitting  in  the  village  or  when 

69 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


engaged  in  felling  a tree,  hunting,  and  other  exercises  which 
require  freedom  of  limb.  At  other  times  he  adjusts  his  blanket 
according  to  his  occupation  and  the  temperature.  If  it  is  hot, 
he  allows  it  to  fall  in  a double  fold  from  his  waist,  where  it  is 
either  fastened  by  a belt  or  by  tucking  the  folds  of  one  corner 
into  the  other,  the  whole  falling  gracefully  to  below  the  knees 
in  the  formation  of  a double  skirt.  In  colder  or  wet  weather 
the  over- skirt  is  raised  to  cover  the  shoulders,  and  sometimes  the 
head.  A belt  is  often  dispensed  with,  and  the  blanket  wrapped 
round  the  body,  leaving  one  shoulder  naked,  and  kept  in  place 
by  hitching  one  corner  over  the  other. 

Often  the  only  coverings  worn  by  men  when  hunting  is  a 
girdle  made  from  the  raw  hide  of  a deer  or  cow.  The  band  is 
deep,  and  cut  into  a broad  fringe  which  hangs  down  the  loins. 

Sandals  and  leggings  are  roughly  made  from  raw  hide,  and 
are  worn  by  the  men  when  hunting  and  by  the  women  when 
gathering  fuel  in  the  forest,  as  a protection  against  the  thorny 
undei'growth.  The  heat  of  the  ground  is  often  so  great  that 
these  sandals  are  worn  when  travelling  over  dry  stretches  of 
country. 

Raw  hides  are  used  extensively  as  mats,  and  the  softer  skins 
serve  as  saddles  for  the  women.  The  skin  of  the  rhea’s  stomach 
is  made  up  into  large  bags  for  carrying  honey,  and  the  neck 
of  the  ostrich,  jabiru,  and  alligator  is  often  converted  into  a 
tobacco-pouch  by  sewing  up  one  end  and  closing  up  the  other 
by  means  of  a small  wooden  ring,  which  is  slipped  down  over 
the  folds.  The  base  is  ornamented  with  woollen  tassels  or  by 
painting  red  scorings. 

The  making  of  the  personal  ornaments  of  the  Lenguas  may 
well  rank  among  their  industries.  Roth  sexes  adorn  themselves^ 
but  the  men  far  more  so  than  the  women.  The  work  is  divided 
between  them,  the  men  perhaps  doing  the  larger  share. 

The  feathers  used  as  head  ornaments  are  sometimes  strung 
together  and  sometimes  worn  singly,  and  are  often  cut  into 
elaborate  shapes.  The  most  valued  and  expensive  article  of 
head-dress  is  a broad  red  woollen  band,  to  which  are  sewn 
diagonal  lines,  squares  or  circles  of  small  buttons,  cut  out  from 

70 


Lengua  Girls.  Age  13-16 

Showing  facial  paint  adornments.  The  colouring  matter  is  red  or  black,  procured  from  fruit  and  vege- 
tables. A section  of  hard  paint  is  moistened  by  the  tongue  and  lips,  and  the  face  and  body  scored  with 
various  designs,  lattooing  is  little  resorted  to  by  the  Lenguas.  Notice  the  absence  of  eyebrows  and 
eyelashes,  each  hair  being  individually  pulled  out.  The  comb  in  the  hair  of  the  girl  in  bottom  right- 
hand  corner  is  made  out  of  a single  piece  of  horn,  and  worn  thus  for  convenience,  not  for  ornament.  The 
waist-belt  is  always  worn  very  tight. 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


snails’  shells.  The  top  is  fringed  with  bright  scarlet  feathers 
taken  from  the  spoon-bill,  or  flamingo.  Some  have  a woollen 
chin-strap  attached  and  beaded  woollen  tassels  hanging  over  the 
ears.  This  head-dress  is  regarded  as  a charm  by  the  wearer, 
especially  against  the  evil  spirit  of  the  swamps.  They  are  much 
prized  in  consequence,  and  are  worn  chiefly  when  visiting, 
feasting,  or  during  courtship. 

The  small  buttons  referred  to  are  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
shirt-button,  with  a hole  drilled  in  the  centre,  and  of  a very 
smooth  surface,  considering  that  they  are  fashioned  only  with  a 
knife,  which  is  as  a rule  none  too  sharp,  and  the  whole  process 
done  by  using  the  ball  of  the  naked  heel  as  a table.  Men  can 
be  seen  seated  cross-legged  on  the  ground,  spending  hours  at  a 
time  in  this  tedious  performance. 

A necklace  is  frequently  worn,  consisting  of  about  six  yards 
of  these  buttons  strung  closely  together,  and  certainly  contain- 
ing some  hundreds  of  them — a proof  of  the  patience  and  per- 
severance of  the  maker.  These  strings  of  buttons  are  the  money 
of  the  people.  A necklace  such  as  the  above  would  represent 
the  value  of  one  sheep. 

Seeds  are  sometimes  strung  into  necklaces.  One  of  peculiar 
formation,  made  only  by  the  northern  Lenguas,  is  composed  of 
pieces  of  bone,  the  legs  of  a water-fowl,  with  a few  seeds  of  a 
water-plant  strung  between  every  two  bones. 

There  are  various  other  kinds  of  necklaces,  but  two  only  are 
worthy  of  mention.  One  consists  of  oblong  pieces  of  fresh-water 
mussel  shells,  about  an  inch  in  length,  with  either  straight  or 
concave  cut  edges.  Two  holes  are  drilled  at  one  end  of  each 
section,  to  attach  it  to  the  neck-string,  and  half-drilled  holes 
are  made  at  the  other  end,  to  form  an  ornamentation.  The 
surface,  when  complete,  is  very  similar  in  appearance  to  that  of 
mother-of-pearl,  and  affords  a very  pleasing  effect  thrown  into 
relief  by  the  reddish-brown  skin  of  the  wearer.  The  same 
tedious  process  is  followed  by  the  men  in  making  these  orna- 
ments. The  women  usually  wear  a necklace  made  by  stringing 
together  a number  of  sheep's  teeth,  interspersed  with  beads.  A 
hole  is  bored  in  the  fang  through  which  to  pass  the  string. 

71 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Wooden  ear-discs  are  worn  as  ornaments,  chiefly  by  the  men. 
The  piercing  of  the  ears,  to  receive  the  discs,  takes  place  at  no 
fixed  period  of  a child’s  life.  Some  are  bored  very  early,  some 
at  a later  period.  The  usual  method  employed  is  to  pierce  the 
lobes  with  a sharp  thorn  or  bone  needle,  afterwards  inserting  a 
piece  of  grass  or  thin  stick,  to  prevent  the  wound  from  closing. 
As  age  advances  the  discs  are  enlarged ; one  and  a half  inches 
in  diameter  is  the  average  size,  but  I have  known  them  in  the  case 
of  an  old  man  as  large  as  three  and  a quarter  inches  in  diameter. 
These  discs  are  worn  in  the  lobe  of  the  ear ; the  distended  skin 
keeps  them  in  position,  and,  when  taken  out,  the  lobe  hangs 
nearly  to  the  shoulder.  The  gap  is  often  filled  by  a coiled  strip 
of  palm-leaf,  and  sometimes  the  long  hair  is  passed  through  and 
tied.  The  discs  are  usually  made  from  willow  wood,  which  is 
very  light,  and  affords  a smooth  surface.  They  are  without 
ornamentation,  except  in  the  case  of  the  witch-doctors,  who 
decorate  them  with  pieces  of  polished  tin  in  the  shape  of  stars 
or  crosses,  some  going  as  far  as  to  cut  pieces  of  imported  mirror 
to  fit  them,  by  means  of  which  they  profess  to  be  able  to  see 
the  shadow  of  the  spirit  passing  out  from  or  entering  into  the 
person  on  whom  they  are  operating. 

Armlets  are  made  out  of  strips  of  lamb’s  skin  with  the  wool 
on,  which  are  wound  round  the  biceps,  their  place  being  some- 
times taken  by  coils  of  yellow  palm-leaf. 

No  Indian  looks  fully  dressed  without  the  feather  anklets. 
These  are  made  from  the  wing  feathers  of  a rhea,  bound  together 
on  a string,  and  often  dyed  a pale  pink.  They  are  not  only 
worn  as  an  ornament,  but  are  considered  a safeguard  against 
snake-bite,  as  the  reptile,  in  striking  at  the  ankle,  may  chance 
to  miss  the  flesh  and  expend  the  poison  on  the  feathers.  The 
binding,  cutting,  and  stringing  together  of  ostrich  plumes  is 
entirely  the  work  of  the  men. 

The  Indians’  household  utensils  and  domestic  appliances  are 
few  and  of  a very  primitive  description.  Pottery,  in  the  shape 
of  water-jars,  cooking-pots,  and  shallow  dishes,  is  made  by  the 
women.  Particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  class  of  clay 
employed,  and  in  preparing  it  they  use  a mixture  of  old  pottery 

72 


A Lengua  Potter 

No  wheel  is  used.  Sitting  in  this  peculiar  posture,  the  woman  builds 
up  her  pot  by  adding  layer  of  clay  to  layer,  and  smoothing  them  out  with 
a shell  dipped  in  water,  to  prevent  sticking. 


Lengua  Pottery 

The  peculiar-shaped  centre-piece  is  rare,  and  serves  as  an  ornament.  The  corded  piece  is  used 
for  carrying  water,  and  the  large-mouthed  vessels  are  for  cooking  and  general  use. 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


pounded  up.  The  vessel  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  thin  rolls 
of  clay  to  a prepared  base,  which  rests  on  a bed  of  skins  made 
slightly  concave,  and  is  gently  turned  round  as  the  operator 
proceeds.  After  moistening  the  edge  of  the  base  with  water, 
the  clay  is  rolled  out  between  the  hands  and  laid  on  the  edge, 
each  roll  as  it  is  added  being  smoothed  out  with  the  shell  of  a 
fresh- water  mussel  dipped  in  water  to  enable  it  to  run  smoothly. 

When  complete  the  vessel  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  then  fired 
for  about  an  hour  by  placing  it  on  the  ground  and  piling  the 
fuel  round  it.  No  glazing  is  done,  but  the  vessels  are  marked 
with  rude  and  irregular  designs  while  they  are  still  hot,  by  using 
birds’  quills,  chips  of  holy-wood  ( palo  santo),  and  gums.  A few 
pieces  of  pottery  are  ornamented  with  designs  of  raised  clay,  but 
these  are  exceedingly  rare  and  of  a peculiar  shape.  Broken 
pieces  of  old  pottery  have  been  found  bearing  scorings,  as  if 
made  by  the  pressure  of  the  thumb,  and  are  said  to  be  the  work 
of  spirits. 

Clay  pipes  are  sometimes  used,  and  it  seems  probable  that 
pipes  were  originally  made  of  clay,  as  the  word  for  “ earth  ” and 
“ pipe  ” is  the  same.  The  bowls  are,  however,  generally  made 
of  wood,  and  their  forms  vary  greatly,  ranging  from  the  ordinary 
smooth  round  piece  of  wood  with  a hole  bored  by  means  of  a 
pointed  knife,  to  elaborately  carved  bowls  in  the  form  of  figures 
and  faces  of  men,  birds,  and  animals.  Sometimes  the  complete 
figure  is  carved  out,  but  generally  the  head  only.  The  stems 
are  made  from  the  core  of  a certain  cactus,  and  when  the  supply 
of  tobacco  runs  short,  the  Indians  chop  up  the  pipe-stems 
saturated  with  nicotine,  and  smoke  them  as  a substitute. 

Tobacco  is  grown  in  small  quantities  in  garden  patches.  The 
leaves  are  picked,  and  while  still  green  are  stripped  by  women 
from  the  central  rib,  and  pounded  in  a hollowed-out  palm- 
stump.  The  pulp  is  then  made  into  small  round  cakes, 
moistened  with  saliva  and  pressed  between  the  hands.  They 
are  allowed  to  bake  in  the  sun  until  quite  hard.  A hole  is  made 
in  the  centre  of  each  cake,  and  several  are  strung  together  for 
convenience.  Chewing  tobacco  is  unknown  amongst  the  Len- 
guas,  but  nearly  all  smoke,  even  the  women  and  children.  They 

73 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


are  not  heavy  smokers,  however,  as  each  takes  only  a few  draws 
before  passing  it  on  to  his  neighbour,  and  seldom  is  a pipe 
smoked  throughout  by  one  person. 

If  a fire  is  handy,  a brand  is  used  to  light  the  pipe,  generally 
by  a woman,  who  takes  the  first  few  draws  and  then  passes  it  to 
the  owner.  At  other  times  a light  is  obtained  by  friction  with 
two  sticks,  and  occasionally  from  a flint  and  steel.  The  fire- 
sticks  are  cut  from  a tree  they  call  the  hapin , one  peculiarity 
of  which  is  that  from  October  to  March,  in  a normal  season,  it 
flowers  every  fourteen  days.  Two  sticks  are  selected,  a short 
one  in  which  notches  are  cut,  and  the  other  longer,  with  one 
end  sharpened  and  rounded  to  serve  as  a drill.  The  notched 
stick  is  placed  upon  the  blade  of  a knife  or  iron  arrow-head,  and 
held  in  position  by  the  operator’s  foot.  The  rounded  end  of 
the  longer  stick  is  then  placed  in  one  of  the  notches,  and  is 
worked  sharply  between  the  palms  of  the  hands  with  a down- 
ward pressure ; the  friction  causes  the  soft  wood  to  ignite,  and 
it  drops  out  in  a smouldering  powder  on  to  the  knife.  This  is 
immediately  dropped  into  the  pipe,  or  on  a prepared  tinder  of 
fibre  of  palm,  kept  in  a horn  and  covered  with  a cap  cut  out  of 
a piece  of  gourd. 

Gourds  grow  in  great  abundance  in  the  Chaco,  and  often  to 
a large  size.  The  natives  put  them  to  many  uses,  chiefly  as  a 
substitute  for  pottery.  By  cutting  them  lengthwise  in  two,  and 
hollowing  them  out,  they  are  converted  into  vessels  for  holding 
water  and  food,  the  half  stem  forming  a ready-made  handle. 
Gourds  of  a round  shape  are  used  as  receptacles  for  fish-hooks, 
tobacco,  needles,  beads,  and  other  little  belongings.  A round 
section,  with  a zig-zagged  edge,  is  cut  out  to  make  an  opening, 
and  on  being  replaced  it  acts  as  a close-fitting  lid,  being  kept  in 
position  by  a sliding  string  loop. 

Gourds  of  a certain  shape  are  selected  as  suitable  for  the 
rattles  which  are  used  at  feasts,  and  by  witch-doctors  when 
exorcising  evil  spirits  and  performing  other  rites  connected  with 
their  craft.  They  are  hollowed  out  through  a small  opening  in 
the  tapering  stem,  and  then  filled  with  dry  seeds,  small  shells, 
beads,  or  anything  that  will  cause  a rattling  sound.  Some  are 

74 


Lengua  Pottery 

Water  bottle,  food  vessel,  and  drinking  cup. 


Four  Generations 

Three  sets  of  parents  with  the  great-grandchild.  The  oldest  parents  are  seated 
in  front. 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


made  to  produce  a more  musical  sound  by  driving  a number  of 
needles  to  the  butt-end  through  the  bulbous  sides,  which  are 
thus  fixed  in  a rigid  position,  and  produce  different  notes  as 
they  are  struck  by  the  seeds  when  swung  to  and  fro. 

The  Indian  displays  his  artistic  powers  by  engraving  the 
smooth  polished  sides  of  gourds.  The  figures  are,  for  the  most 
part,  those  of  natural  objects  and  animals,  while  some  are 
attempts  to  express  his  idea  of  evil  spirits.  Topographical 
scenes  are  also  elaborately  depicted,  roads,  by-paths,  trees  of 
various  kinds,  rivers,  and  villages  being  introduced. 

The  Lengua  musical  instruments  are  few  in  number,  and  are 
for  the  most  part  similar  to  those  used  by  the  neighbouring 
tribes.  They  include  a small  bamboo  flute,  a whistle  made  from 
bones,  and  a flat  wooden  whistle  worn  round  the  neck  as  an 
ornament.  This  latter  is  cleverly  made,  being  hollowed  out 
through  three  small  holes  which  produce  the  notes.  Drums  are 
made  by  stretching  wet  skins  over  cooking  pots,  and  are  beaten 
with  thin  wooden  sticks.  The  only  instrument  which  produces 
anything  approaching  musical  sounds  is  a kind  of  fiddle.  It  is 
of  a very  crude  formation.  A palm-log  is  chopped  down  to  form 
a wide  hollow  base  with  a long  arm.  The  one  string  consists  of 
a long  twist  of  horse-hair,  which  is  tied  to  the  base  and  adjusted 
by  a wedge  of  wood  passed  through  a hole  at  the  top  of  the  arm. 
A piece  of  caraguata  leaf  is  placed  over  the  mouth  of  the 
hollow  base,  and  upon  this  rests  a flat  piece  of  wood  for  a bridge. 
The  sounds  are  produced  (all  in  a minor  key)  by  rubbing  a small 
horse-hair  bow  across  the  string,  and  at  the  same  time  fingering 
with  the  left  hand  near  the  top  of  the  arm.  Saliva  is  freely 
applied  to  the  bow-string  to  give  resonance,  and  all  seem  to  play 
the  same  tune. 

Rough  spoons  ai’e  fashioned  from  goats’  horns,  the  oldest  men 
having  the  largest.  Comparatively  few  of  these  are  made,  small 
half-gourds  or  shells  being  more  often  used  as  a substitute. 

Before  knives  of  foreign  manufacture  were  introduced,  a 
sharpened  bamboo  was  used,  and  even  to-day  a knife  made  from 
hard  wood  is  preferred  for  cutting  vegetables. 

Combs  were  originally  made  by  inserting  the  spines  of  a palm- 

75 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


tree  into  a small  piece  of  split  bamboo,  the  distance  between  the 
teeth  being  regulated  by  the  string  binding  the  sides  together. 
Now,  imported  combs  are  imitated,  made  from  cows’  horns,  the 
teeth  being  cut  with  an  old  knife  converted  into  a saw. 

No  images  are  made,  except  a few  wax  representations  of 
animals,  which  are  supposed  to  act  as  charms  when  hunting. 

Certain  intoxicating  liquors  are  brewed  from  the  algaroba 
bean,  honey,  maize,  and  pumpkins,  but  not  in  large  quanti- 
ties. 

The  Indians  have  no  knowledge  of  writing,  but  keep  a diary 
by  means  of  a stick  about  the  size  of  a pencil,  closely  notched 
all  round.  When  on  the  mai'ch,  each  day  is  marked  off  by  a 
notch,  and  in  recent  years  some  Indians  have  been  known  to 
paint  the  Sunday  notch  in  red.  Certain  marks  are  made  along- 
side to  represent  incidents  of  travel.  On  producing  a diary-stick 
from  his  bag,  an  Indian  can  retail  the  events  of  the  past  few 
weeks  with  accuracy. 

Certain  roadway  signs  are  met  with  to  inform  travellers  of 
any  interesting  events.  At  an  abandoned  village,  a sign  is  often 
left : a piece  of  bamboo  or  a stick  is  fixed  in  the  ground  and 
inclined  in  the  direction  the  villagers  have  taken.  A long  or 
short  hollow  scooped  out  behind  the  stick  indicates  the  distance 
travelled,  and  if  they  have  gone  to  a feast  a small  gourd  is  placed 
on  the  top  of  the  stick,  or  a bunch  of  feathers  tied  to  it.  A cob 
of  maize  and  a hank  of  wool  placed  on  a smaller  stick  have  been 
known  to  imply  that  a sheep  would  be  killed,  and  maize  eaten 
at  the  feast.  In  reading  such  signs  as  these,  the  Indian  shows 
remarkably  acute  perception. 

The  natives  living  on  the  banks  of  the  River  Paraguay  make 
dug-out  canoes,  but  those  living  inland  are  content  with  digging 
out  a bottle-trunk  tree  when  they  wish  to  pass  over  the  swollen 
swamps  and  streams.  The  process  in  each  case  is  a very  tedious 
one.  The  only  instruments  used  are  a clumsy  hard-wood  digger 
and  fire-brands. 

The  principal  weapons,  both  of  the  chase  and  of  war,  are 
bows,  arrows,  and  a heavy  hard-wood  club.  The  bow  is  generally 
made  from  the  heart-wood  of  a certain  tree,  though  a few  other 

76 


Rubbings  taken  from  Engravings  on  an  Indian’s  Gourd 

(a)  His  idea  of  the  forest  “ Kifyikhama,”  the  most  dreaded  of  all  spirits — a long,  thin,  many- 
liinbed  form  with  flaming  eyes.  Indians  lost  in  a forest  have  been  known  to  go  mad  through 
fear  of  encountering  such  apparitions. 

(b)  The  Creation  Beetle,  with  three  men  mounted  on  a horse  inside.  The  meaning  of  this  is 
obscure.  The  Lengua  theory  of  the  beetle  as  the  symbol  of  the  Creator  has  a significant 
resemblance  to  the  mythology  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 


Indian  Engraving 

A good  specimen  of  the  Indian’s  talent  of  engraving  on  a gourd.  A spirit,  armadillos,  pigs, 
an  ostrich,  beetles,  a tortoise,  snake-skins,  and  palm  trees  are  crudely  carved  out  with  a bone 
lancet  and  smeared  with  a burnt  stick.  These  engraved  gourds  constitute  diaries  of  journeys, 
indicating  the  various  animals,  spirits,  and  types  of  country  seen  en  route. 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


woods  are  sometimes  employed.  Among  the  Lenguas,  bending 
is  done  by  fire,  or  by  chopping  into  shape  with  an  axe.  The 
ends  are  cut  so  as  to  fall  inwards,  and  when  reduced  to  the 
required  size,  the  surface  is  scraped  and  smoothed  by  means  of  a 
knife.  The  Lengua  bow  is  round,  but  those  used  by  tribes  to 
the  south-west  are  flat  in  shape.  The  average  length  is  five  feet. 

The  bow-string  is  made  from  twisted  strips  of  deer-hide,  and 
is  long  enough  to  reach  the  full  length  and  half-way  back  again, 
the  end  with  the  extra  half  being  always  held  at  the  bottom 
when  shooting. 

The  arrow-shaft  is  of  cane,  from  the  cctha  castilla , and  is 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  two  feet  long.  The 
heads  are  made  from  various  hard  woods,  and  are  round,  with 
long,  tapering  points.  Four  barbs  are  cut  on  one  side  only. 
The  arrow,  when  complete,  is  three  feet  long.  Thin  strips  of 
a vegetable  binder  are  wound  round  the  cane  shaft  over  the 
socket  in  which  the  head  is  inserted.  Two  feathers  are  attached 
to  the  arrow  in  a slightly  spiral  manner,  waxed  thread  being 
used  to  bind  them  on.  The  butt-end  is  also  bound,  to  strengthen 
the  notch.  Iron-headed  arrows  are  used  by  preference,  and  are 
made  from  hoop-iron,  which  is  chipped  into  shape  with  the 
back  of  a knife,  and  afterwards  filed  to  produce  an  edge  and 
point.  The  head  is  bound  into  a wooden  holder,  and  this  is 
inserted  into  the  cane  socket.  The  average  length  is  four  and  a 
half  inches. 

The  bow  is  held  vertically,  and  the  string  drawn  to  the  right 
cheek.  The  shooter  holds  the  butt  end  of  the  arrow  between 
the  first  and  second  fingers  of  his  right  hand,  training  the  shaft 
along  the  forefinger  of  his  left  hand.  No  quiver  is  used,  but 
the  arrows  are  stuck  into  the  belt.  Weapons  are  exclusively 
made  by  the  men. 

Gardening  in  a small  way  is  the  only  form  of  agriculture  in 
vogue  among  the  Indians,  and  this  has  many  drawbacks.  Suitable 
soil  is  only  found  in  small  patches  here  and  there,  and  consequently 
a man  has  to  walk  long  distances  to  his  scattered  garden-plots. 
Their  principal  crops  are  pumpkins,  sweet  potatoes,  tobacco, 
maize,  and  mandioca.  The  last  is  a starchy  root,  which 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

forms  the  staple  food  of  the  Paraguayans.  It  is  eaten  boiled 
or  roasted,  or  is  gi’ound  into  flour  for  making  into  cakes. 

There  is  little  to  encourage  gardening  on  a large  scale  in  the 
Chaco,  for  the  extremes  of  drought  and  flood  are  detrimental  to 
large  crops,  and  in  the  event  of  a good  supply  the  birds,  myriads 
of  ants,  locusts,  and  even  rats,  often  destroy  the  whole  of  an 
Indian’s  hard-earned  produce. 

The  only  garden  implement  employed  is  a native  hoe,  re- 
sembling in  shape  a small  paddle,  with  a sharp-pointed  blade 
not  more  than  three  inches  across.  It  is  made  of  very  hard 
wood,  and  is  of  varying  length. 

The  only  other  industry  worthy  of  mention  is  house-building, 
and  this  is  not  a very  serious  undertaking  with  the  Indian. 
Two  distinct  methods  are  employed,  and  neither  gives  a water- 
proof or  weather-proof  abode.  As  they  are  constantly  moving 
from  one  hunting-ground  to  another,  or  abandoning  then- 
villages  through  sickness,  death,  or  superstition,  they  naturally 
do  not  attempt  to  build  any  substantial  or  permanent  dwellings. 

One  class  of  shelter  is  built  in  a circular  form  by  placing 
sticks  in  the  ground,  and  bringing  together  the  upper  ends  in 
the  shape  of  a dome.  On  the  top  of  this  the  women  pile 
rushes,  grass,  and  palm-leaves,  which  form  a rough  thatch 
covering  the  structure  half-way  down.  A man  cannot  stand 
upright  in  such  an  erection,  but  they  are  chiefly  used  as  a 
protection  from  the  sun  and  storms,  and  not  as  living-rooms. 

The  huts  of  the  Suhin  are  much  higher  than  those  of  the 
Lenguas,  and  are  more  regularly  thatched.  They  are  covered 
right  down  to  the  ground,  a small  opening  being  left  for  a door, 
through  which  a man  has  to  enter  on  all  fours. 

The  second  class  of  Lengua  shelter  consists  of  reed  matting, 
tied  on  to  a long  framework  of  sticks.  The  mats  are  stretched 
along  both  sides,  and  meet  at  the  ridge.  In  fine  weather  the 
ridged-roof  form  is  kept,  but  should  the  day  prove  very  hot  one 
side  is  raised  level  with  the  ridge.  In  the  case  of  wet  or  windy 
weather,  the  roof  is  dropped  down  on  the  weather  side  to  shut 
off  the  storm.  In  villages  so  built,  the  mat-houses  are  arranged 
in  one  or  more  long  lines. 


78 


Lengua  Pottery 

A Lengua  woman  completing  a clay  water-jar.  1 he  section  in  the  foreground  is  a half  gourd  used  as  a basin  or  drinking-vessel. 


ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 


When  the  Indians  remove  to  a new  site  the  grass-house  is 
abandoned  or  more  often  burnt,  but  the  reed  matting  is  carefully 
taken  down,  rolled  up,  and  carried  by  the  women  on  the  top  of 
the  bundles  comprising  all  their  earthly  possessions. 

Many  of  the  Chaco  industries  are  slowly  dying  out  as  the 
Indians  get  more  in  touch  with  civilization,  and  to-day  goods  of 
British  manufacture  are  to  be  found  in  most  Indian  villages, 
even  far  into  the  interior. 


CLAY  WATER-BOTTLE. 


79 


CHAPTER  VIII 


HUNTING 

The  Chaco  being  an  inland  country,  it  may  seem  rather  a 
strange  assertion  that  fishing  forms  one  of  the  chief  means 
of  subsistence  of  the  Indians,  even  among  those  remote  from 
large  rivers.  The  Chaco  is  a land  of  contradictions.  I have 
known  it  almost  impossible  to  obtain  water,  except  from  wells, 
when  at  any  distance  from  a permanent  river,  and  that,  too,  for 
periods  of  nearly  two  years  at  a stretch.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  ride  for  miles  at  a quick  trot,  and  sometimes  even  at  a gallop, 
over  what  appears  at  the  time  to  be  prairie-land,  but  in  reality 
is  a swamp  bed;  and  a few  months  after  the  rainy  season  has  set 
in  this  same  land  has  become  a vast  swamp,  with  water  in  places 
even  five  feet  deep,  the  whole  covered  with  reeds  and  a tangled 
mass  of  water  plants.  This  swamp  now  teems  with  fish,  eels, 
the  famous  mud-fish  ( Lepidosiren , see  Appendix),  and  some- 
times alligators,  while  numbers  of  water-fowl  frequent  its 
waters. 

The  eels  and  mud-fish  have  been  in  hiding  throughout  the 
drought  a few  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  fish, 
of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  are  bred  probably  from  eggs 
deposited  in  the  mud  before  the  drought  sets  in,  although 
some,  I believe,  like  the  eels,  have  the  power  of  surviving 
the  drought.  This  extraordinary  change  of  conditions  must 
necessarily  puzzle  the  reader  who  is  unacquainted  with  such 
possibilities ; but  the  Indian,  knowing  from  experience  what  he 
may  expect,  hastens  to  pitch  his  camp  in  the  vicinity  of  such 
swamps  on  the  break-up  of  the  dry  season,  being  certain  that 
he  will  find  ready  at  hand  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  food 

80 


HUNTING 

until  the  next  drought  sets  in,  which  may  not  be  for  some 
years. 

His  methods  of  obtaining  this  fish-supply  are  many,  and  he 
varies  them  according  to  the  conditions.  In  the  overgrown  parts 
of  the  swamp  he  uses  the  fishhook,  with  a very  short  line,  either 
sitting  in  a canoe  or  standing  in  the  water.  His  hooks  are 
made  of  bone  or  wood,  although  he  now  often  transforms  old 
nails  into  very  serviceable  hooks  when  he  is  not  able  to  obtain 
those  of  European  make.  In  open  water,  which  is  never  of 
very  great  extent,  he  uses  a net.  This  is  home-made,  generally 
three  to  four  feet  long,  being  kept  open  by  two  sticks. 
Stooping  down,  and  holding  the  lower  stick  close  to  the  bottom, 
he  draws  the  net  slowly  along,  and  by  closing  the  mouth  of  the 
net  with  the  two  sticks  he  secures  the  fish,  transferring  them  to 
a net-bag  slung  on  his  shoulders. 

Running  into  these  swamps  are  many  small  streams,  which 
they  dam  when  the  swamp  begins  to  fall,  and  they  are  able 
to  capture  a great  quantity  of  fish  with  the  hands.  In  larger 
streams  they  set  fish-traps,  made  of  wicker-work,  very  similar 
to  a lobster-pot.  The  bottom  is  pressed  into  the  mud, 
allowing  the  water  to  be  well  above  the  top  of  the  trap,  and  the 
fish,  having  entered,  are  unable  to  escape  owing  to  the  peculiar 
formation  of  the  trap.  In  deeper  water,  where  it  is  clear,  they 
frequently  shoot  the  larger  fish  with  bow  and  arrow.  For  very 
large  fish  a longer  arrow  is  used,  the  point  being  detachable 
from  the  shaft,  to  which  it  is  fixed  by  means  of  string.  The 
floating  shaft  thus  enables  them  to  recover  the  fish  when  tired 
out.  They  kill  the  smaller  kind,  up  to  the  size  of  a mackerel, 
by  biting  the  head. 

Quite  a different  method  is  employed  in  catching  the  eel  and 
mud-fish.  These  they  pursue  with  a thin  pointed  spear,  which 
can  be  used  only  in  shallow  water.  Walking  slowly  along,  they 
prod  the  roots  of  the  reeds,  and  keep  a sharp  lookout  for  any 
slight  quiver  in  the  water.  This  they  follow,  and,  making  a 
thrust  from  time  to  time,  frequently  succeed  in  spearing  one.  A 
good  hunter  will  capture  from  ten  to  twelve  of  these  mud-fish 
in  a day,  and  as  each  weighs  several  pounds,  he  is  well  rewarded 


HUNTING 


for  his  labour,  especially  as  the  Indians  are  very  fond  of  the 
flesh,  and  revel  in  the  rich  fat. 

When  the  water  dries  up  they  search  for  their  holes,  and  dig 
out  their  prey,  catching  them  with  their  hands.  To  aid  them  in 
this  they  wear  bands  of  small  bones  upon  the  palms,  thus  enabling 
them  the  better  to  hold  the  slippery  creatures.  Occasionally 
they  succeed  in  capturing  a large  water-snake  (averaging  about 
nine  feet  in  length),  and  when  caught  they  tie  it  by  the  head  to 
their  waist-belt,  and  allow  it  to  drag  behind  them  until  they 
leave  the  swamp.  The  flesh  is  coarse,  but  the  bulk  makes  up 
for  the  lack  of  quality. 

It  is  generally  only  in  the  larger  streams  that  they  hunt  the 
alligator,  the  matted  vegetation  making  it  difficult  in  the 
swamps.  They  endeavour  to  surprise  him  when  basking  on  the 
bank,  but  sometimes  they  move  cautiously  along  in  a canoe, 
looking  out  for  any  that  may  happen  to  be  asleep  among  the 
weeds,  killing  them  with  a spear,  and  lashing  them  to  the  canoe 
in  order  to  bring  them  to  the  bank.  When  alligators  are 
plentiful  the  Indians  enter  the  water,  forming  a line  across  the 
stream,  while  a few  higher  up  endeavour  to  drive  them  down. 
This  is  generally  a very  successful  way  of  hunting,  but  extremely 
dangerous. 

On  one  occasion  I had  gone  out  in  a canoe  to  cut  poles  with 
which  to  repair  a bullock-cart.  These  poles  were  about  four  inches 
in  diameter.  I had  secured  a few,  and  was  drifting  down  stream 
looking  for  another  suitable  tree,  and  on  discovering  one  began 
to  work  the  canoe  through  the  weeds  towards  the  bank.  As  I 
was  about  to  land  I was  confronted  by  a large  alligator  coming 
down  the  bank  towards  me.  These  creatures  generally  make 
for  the  water,  and,  seeing  no  reason  to  molest  him,  I threw  a 
handful  of  weed  at  him  to  hasten  his  movements,  when,  to  my 
surprise,  he  showed  no  inclination  to  avoid  me,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  showed  fight,  advancing  towards  me  with  open  jaws. 
Having  no  firearm,  I thrust  the  blade  of  the  paddle  into  his 
mouth,  but  this  he  crushed  as  if  it  were  matchwood.  Seeing 
how  much  he  enjoyed  the  paddle,  I thought  I would  give  him 
something  more  substantial,  so,  taking  up  one  of  the  poles, 

82 


A Bottle-trunk  Tree 

The  bark  is  very  hard  and  thorny,  but  the  heart  is 
soft  and  pithy — eminently  suited  for  hollowing  out  to 
serve  as  a dug-out  canoe.  The  tree  produces  a beauti- 
ful lily  flower,  and  the  seed-pods  contain  a quantity  of 
silk-like  substance. 


A Rattle-snake  in  the  Grass 

Photographed  alive  in  the  act  of  striking.  The  bite 
is  very  poisonous,  and  the  danger  to  the  naked  feet 
and  legs  of  the  Indian  travelling  through  the  long 
grass  is  evident. 


A Lengua  Roadway  Sign 

The  stick  denotes  that  a party  of  Indians  have  gone 
in  the  direction  it  leans  towards,  which  is  further 
emphasised  by  grooves  cut  in  the  ground.  They  have 
gone  to  a feast,  indicated  by  the  bunch  of  feathers. 
The  smaller  stick  with  a fleece  of  white  wool  and  a 
cob  of  maize  shows  that  a sheep  will  be  killed  and 
eaten,  together  with  maize. 


The  Rattle  of  the  Rattle-snake 


The  end  of  the  tail— the  continuation  of  the  back- 
bone— is  sheathed  with  loose  ring-shaped  sections  of  a 
horny  substance.  The  wagging  of  the  tail  produces 
the  rattling  sound.  This  snake  is  supposed  to  acquire 
a new  ring  to  its  rattle  each  year  it  lives. 


HUNTING 


and  awaiting  my  opportunity,  I thrust  it  with  all  my  force  into 
his  gaping  throat.  He  was  now  powerless ; but  not  wishing  to 
leave  him  thus  to  suffer,  I hammered  it  further  into  his  body 
with  another  pole,  until  it  passed  through  him.  He  was  now 
safe  to  land,  and,  having  collected  the  timber  I wanted,  I fixed 
the  painter  behind  the  fore-feet  of  the  alligator,  and  towed  it 
to  my  camp.  The  Indians  were  greatly  amused  at  my  novel 
way  of  capturing  this  reptile,  but  heartily  welcomed  this  addition 
to  their  larder. 

Fishing  is  not  altogether  void  of  risk,  the  unseen  dangers 
being  really  much  more  formidable  than  any  encounter  with  an 
alligator  or  large  water-snake.  The  sting-ray  fish,  for  example, 
lies  hidden  in  the  mud  of  the  swamps,  and  especially  of  the 
larger  streams.  When  trptlden  upon  by  the  fisher,  it  retaliates 
by  thrusting  its  powerful  sting  (rising  as  a fin  from  the  back) 
into  his  foot,  sometimes  penetrating  from  the  sole  right  through 
the  instep.  This  causes  not  only  intense  suffering,  but  has  been 
known  to  result  in  serious  complications,  and  even  death.  A 
less  dangerous  but  more  common  foe  is  a small  fish  with  very 
sharp  teeth,  capable  of  biting  through  thin  wire.  It  frequently 
attacks  the  fisher,  taking  away  a piece  of  his  flesh. 

In  the  swamps,  lying  upon  the  tangled  vegetation,  poisonous 
snakes  are  sometimes  to  be  found  whose  bite  in  some  instances 
proves  fatal  to  the  natives.  The  danger  is  increased  by  their 
not  being  easily  distinguished  from  the  surrounding  vegetation. 
I myself  have  had  several  very  narrow  escapes.  On  one  occasion, 
when  I was  clearing  a passage  through  a swamp,  and  bending 
down  to  cut  at  the  roots  of  the  undergrowth,  one  of  these  snakes 
struck  at  me,  but  an  Indian  standing  by  dealt  it  a blow  just  in 
time  with  his  bush-knife. 

During  the  wet  season,  when  birds  abound  in  the  swamps,  the 
natives  obtain  a welcome  change  of  food.  They  resort  to  many 
devices  in  bird-catching,  the  most  interesting  of  which  are  those 
they  employ  in  capturing  the  young  which  are  unable  to  fly  or 
birds  roosting  in  trees,  and  in  catching  a species  of  large  stork — 
the  jabiru.  Towards  evening,  arming  themselves  with  bundles 
of  short  sticks,  the  Indians  enter  the  swamp,  and,  encircling  a 

83 


HUNTING 


number  of  young  birds  swimming  or  fluttering  over  the  surface 
of  the  water,  kill  them  by  blows  from  the  sticks.  Sometimes 
the  hunters  will  hide  in  a clump  of  weed,  and,  moving  it  with 
them,  will  cautiously  advance  upon  the  unsuspecting  birds,  and, 
occasionally  diving  underneath  them,  catch  them  by  the  legs. 
When  a tree  has  been  noted  in  which  the  birds  roost  at  night, 
the  hunters  sally  forth  after  dark  armed  with  sticks,  and,  creep- 
ing up  cautiously,  surround  the  tree.  The  sleepy  birds  fall  easy 
victims  to  their  deadly  aim. 

The  jabiru,  being  a bird  standing  five  feet  high,  affords  an 
easier  target  and  a more  substantial  meal.  On  noting  their 
feeding-ground  and  the  course  they  take  in  ffying  to  their  sleep- 
ing quarters,  the  Indians  take  up  their  positions  at  intervals 
along  the  course.  At  sunset  the  birds,  one  by  one,  fly  off  to  their 
distant  sleeping-ground,  and  at  a height  of  some  forty  feet  their 
long  bodies  afford  a fairly  easy  target  to  the  practised  eye  of  the 
Indian,  who  is  an  adept  at  throwing  a stick  when  the  bird  is 
immediately  above  him. 

But  they  are  able  to  secure  larger  numbers  at  night,  when 
they  attack  the  whole  flock.  Waiting  until  the  moon  sets,  the 
Indians  start  out  in  the  darkness,  armed  not  only  with  sticks, 
but  each  carrying  a palm-leaf  torch.  The  unsuspecting  birds, 
perched  on  ant-hills,  are  surrounded,  and  at  a given  signal  each 
Indian  lights  his  torch  and  rushes  on  the  bird  he  has  singled 
out.  In  the  general  commotion  they  fall  an  easy  prey,  being 
too  confused  in  their  drowsy  state  with  the  glare  from  the 
torches  to  show  fight,  as  they  are  quite  capable  of  doing  at 
other  times. 

Riding  early  one  morning  along  the  edge  of  a swamp,  accom- 
panied by  an  Indian,  I noticed  a large  stork  close  by.  My 
companion  dismounted,  and  with  his  gun  succeeded  in  wounding 
it,  but  not  severely.  On  riding  up  to  secure  it,  I was  attacked 
by  the  bird,  but  managed  to  keep  it  off  with  my  whip,  and, 
awaiting  my  opportunity,  threw  my  lasso.  I did  not  succeed  in 
looping  it,  but  the  rope  twisted  round  its  neck.  The  bird  again 
savagely  attacked  me,  but  the  Indian  came  to  my  assistance,  and 

84 


A Lengua  Canoe 

Lenguas  about  to  cross  the  River  Paraguay  in  a “ Dug-out  ” tree.  Wooden  spades  and  lire  are  used  in  t lie  process  of  forming  these  canoes. 
For  stability  the  occupants  kneel.  Paddles  are  used  for  propulsion  and  steering. 


HUNTING 

succeeded  in  getting  hold  of  the  other  end  of  the  rope,  by 
which  means  we  strangled  it. 

Perhaps  the  most  valuable  game  of  the  Chaco,  and  the  most 
sought  after,  is  the  rhea,  not  only  on  account  of  its  flesh,  which 
is  considered  a delicacy,  but  also  for  its  feathers,  which  the 
Indians  largely  use  for  personal  ornament,  and  which  they  barter 
at  the  foreign  stores.  * 

The  ostrich  is  a very  shy  but  foolish  bird,  and  their  methods 
of  hunting  it  are  planned  accordingly.  If  the  hunting-ground 
should  happen  to  be  in  a palm  forest,  the  hunter  binds  the 
leaves  of  a palm  tree  together,  and  places  them  on  his  head  and 
shoulders  in  order  to  resemble  a young  tree.  With  no  other 
concealment  than  this,  he  is  enabled  to  get  within  easy  range 
of  his  bird.  But  should  he  be  hunting  in  ant-hill  country,  he 
uses  a bunch  of  creeper  instead,  such  as  crowns  the  head  of 
every  ant-hill.  In  open  scrub  country  another  device  is  occa- 
sionally adopted.  The  hunters  block  up  the  openings  between 
the  various  copses  with  brushwood,  and  other  Indians,  lying  in 
wait  at  given  points,  drive  the  birds  towards  them.  Although 
the  ostrich  could  easily  jump  over  the  obstacles,  he  foolishly 
follows  the  line  of  scrub,  looking  for  an  opening,  and  is  thus 
easily  shot.  In  clear  and  open  country,  suitable  for  hunting  on 
horseback,  the  Indians,  riding  bare-back,  run  them  down,  taking 
advantage  of  the  zig-zag  course  of  the  birds,  and  in  many  cases 
they  use  the  bola,  a weapon  made  of  plaited  strips  of  hide, 
weighted  at  the  ends,  which  twine  round  the  legs,  and  trip  up 
the  victim  w'hen  throw-n  in  a similar  way  to  the  lasso. 

Indians  are  clever  mimics,  and  use  this  power  to  great  advan- 
tage in  imitating  the  cries  of  certain  birds  and  animals.  It  is 
wonderful  to  see  the  effect  of  this  on  an  ostrich.  The  Indian, 
secreted  in  the  grass  or  bushes,  imitates  the  cry  of  the  male 
bird,  and  this  at  once  arrests  the  attention  of  the  ostrich,  and 
if  a male,  he  instantly  puffs  out  his  feathers,  showing  every  sign 
of  fight  as  he  advances  cautiously  in  the  direction  of  the  sound. 
On  one  occasion  when  I was  travelling  with  Indians,  we  espied  a 
fox  on  a bare  patch  of  ground  some  three  hundred  yards  in 

85 


HUNTING 


front.  One  of  my  companions  signalled  to  us  to  lie  down  in  the 
long  grass.  He  then  imitated  the  cry  of  a wounded  bird. 
Instantly  we  noticed  the  fox  look  up  inquiringly.  The  cry  was 
repeated,  and  he  came  towards  us.  Another  cry,  and  the  fox 
quickened  his  pace.  The  Indian  continued  the  imitation  until 
the  fox  broke  into  a quick  trot,  actually  coming  to  within 
twenty  feet  of  us  before  he  discovered  the  deception. 

When  hunting  the  deer,  of  which  there  are  three  kinds  in  the 
Chaco,  they  use  similar  disguises  to  those  employed  in  approach- 
ing ostriches.  Sometimes  these  fleet  creatures  are  seen  bounding 
along  through  the  tall  thick  grass,  and  a peculiar  low,  prolonged 
whistle  will  frequently  arrest  their  attention  and  cause  them  to 
slacken  their  pace  or  stop  altogether.  A bright  red  head-dress 
has  also  the  effect  of  attracting  a deer’s  attention.  Frequently, 
however,  the  Indians  hunt  the  deer  without  any  disguise,  trust- 
ing to  their  expertness  in  stalking  to  get  near  their  quarry. 
The  colour  and  clothing  of  the  Indian  harmonize  perfectly  with 
his  surroundings,  thus  enabling  him  to  approach  his  game  with 
much  greater  ease  than  could  a European.  Whilst  stalking 
game  they  appear  in  the  distance  remarkably  like  deer,  so  much 
so  that  on  two  or  three  occasions  I have  actually  taken  aim  at 
an  Indian  in  mistake  for  a deer,  and  have  only  been  prevented 
in  the  nick  of  time  by  my  sharper-sighted  Indian  companions. 
I once  saw  two  Indians  even  deceived  in  the  same  way  into 
allowing  my  companion  to  stalk  for  a considerable  distance 
what  appeared  to  all  of  us  to  be  a deer,  and  the  truth  dawned 
upon  them  only  just  in  time  for  them  to  shout  as  he  was  raising 
his  rifle. 

Wild  pigs  are  found  in  two  varieties  in  the  Chaco,  the  smaller 
and  larger  “ peccare,”  the  former  being  by  far  the  more  formid- 
able. Frequently  Indians  in  hunting  these  animals  are  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  a tree.  The  pigs  move  about  in  herds,  some- 
times thirty  or  forty  in  number,  and  the  natives  assert  that  they 
sometimes  surround  a jaguar  which  has  been  tracking  them. 

One  of  the  most  peculiar  animals  found  in  the  Chaco  is  the 
ant-eater,  of  which  there  are  also  two  kinds.  The  great  ant- 
eater  measures  about  seven  feet  from  snout  to  tail,  and  is  said 

86 


(Indian  Stalker,  Disguised  as  a Clump  of  Foliage 

The  inset  clearly  shows  how  the  hunter  may  be  mistaken  for  an  ant-hill  covered  with 
vegetation,  the  bow  and  arrow  being  barely  distinguishable.  The  stalker  runs  for  some 
yards,  and  then  stops  dead  at  any  warning  of  his  approach,  moving  on  by  stages  till  within 
bow-shot.  The  raw  hide  belt  is  usually  the  only  hunting  dress. 


HUNTING 


by  the  Indians  to  succeed  sometimes  in  killing  the  jaguar.  I 
have  often  found  natives  making  wax  models  of  the  ant-eater 
with  its  young  on  its  back,  which  they  say  is  their  mode  of 
carrying  them. 

In  addition  to  the  beasts  already  mentioned,  there  are  the 
tapir,  maned  wolf,  fox,  armadillo,  tiger-cat,  carpincho  (river- 
pig),  nutria,  otter,  iguana,  and  a number  of  smaller  animals, 
none  of  which  call  for  any  special  comment  in  the  methods  of 
hunting  them. 

The  puma  and  the  jaguar  are  the  two  largest  carnivora,  but 
the  former  is  not  feared  by  the  natives.  The  jaguar,  however, 
they  hold  in  great  respect,  and  with  good  reason,  for  man- 
eaters  are  occasionally  met  with.  Not  long  ago  one  of  the 
mission  Indians,  while  honey-hunting  in  the  forest,  was  killed 
and  devoured  by  one.  The  natives  say,  however,  that  it  is  only 
when  the  jaguar  becomes  old  and  his  teeth  are  worn  that  he 
ventures  to  attack  man,  being  then  unable  to  pursue  fleeter 
game,  or  to  tear  the  tougher  covering  of  some  of  his  prey. 
Starvation  drives  him  to  the  desperate  expedient  of  attacking 
man,  of  whom  he  is  otherwise  afraid.  But  when  the  jaguar  is 
hunted  he  shows  fight,  especially  when  cornered,  or  with  cubs, 
as  is  instanced  by  the  many  scars  that  Indians  carry  who  engage 
in  this  dangerous  sport,  in  which  some  not  unfrequently  lose 
their  lives.  In  these  hunts  they  generally  lose  a large  number 
of  their  dogs,  the  jaguar  ripping  up  with  a single  blow  any  that 
come  within  reach. 

They  are  skilful  in  trapping,  but  I need  only  describe  the 
jaguar-trap  in  particular.  Selecting  a path  in  the  forest  along 
which  they  have  noticed  spoor,  they  fell  a tree,  thus  blocking 
the  way ; at  one  side  they  dig  a pit  across  it  in  which  they 
suspend  a looped  lasso  with  the  end  tied  to  a stout  branch  of 
a neighbouring  tree.  The  lasso  is  so  arranged  that  when  the 
jaguar  falls  into  the  pit,  it  tightens  around  his  body  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  prevent  him  biting  it  through  and  escaping.  The 
Indians  say  that  the  blocking  up  of  its  accustomed  path  greatly 
puzzles  the  animal,  and  he  is  so  occupied  in  looking  for  an  exit, 
which  has  been  designedly  arranged  for  in  the  direction  of  the 

87 


HUNTING 


pit,  that  he  fails  to  notice  the  mouth  of  the  trap,  which  is 
covered  over  to  make  it  look  as  natural  as  possible. 

A rather  serio-comic  adventure  of  an  Indian  with  a jaguar 
took  place  near  one  of  our  stations.  Several  hunters  had  gone 
into  the  forest  and  had  become  scattered  in  searching  for  honey. 
One,  having  observed  a hollow  in  a tree,  climbed  it  in  order  to 
extract  the  much-sought-after  dainty.  While  busily  occupied 
in  this,  he  was  horrified  to  see  a huge  jaguar  coming  in  his 
direction.  It  took  its  stand  beneath  the  tree,  occasionally 
looking  up  at  him,  while  it  mauled  his  hide  sandals,  which  he 
had  left  at  the  root  together  with  his  weapons.  Fearing  lest  it 
should  climb  after  him,  he  went  up  higher  to  the  smaller 
branches,  where  the  jaguar  could  not  reach  him  on  account  of 
its  weight  and  the  difficulty  of  getting  a good  grip  with  its  claws. 
To  his  disgust,  close  above  him  was  a wasps1  nest,  and  in  order 
to  protect  himself  he  had  to  cover  his  body  as  best  he  could 
with  his  blanket,  but  not  sufficiently  to  prevent  his  exposed 
parts  receiving  many  stings.  He  proceeded  to  shout  lustily  for 
help,  and  his  companions  in  time  came  to  his  rescue.  Perceiving 
the  cause  of  the  alarm,  they  quickly  took  shelter  behind  the 
larger  trees,  and  from  their  cover  shot  at  the  jaguar.  It 
sprang  at  one,  who  dodged  behind  the  trunk,  but  the  others 
poured  in  a few  more  arrows  and  killed  it.  The  released 
prisoner  speedily  descended  from  his  uncomfortable  position,  and 
helped  his  rescuers  to  take  off  the  valuable  skin,  which,  together 
with  the  fat,  they  carried  off"  in  triumph  to  the  village.  The 
danger  being  passed,  they  sat  round  the  fires  eating  the  fat  and 
indulging  in  merry  jokes  at  their  companion’s  expense. 

While  the  Indians  fully  enjoy  the  excitement  of  sport, 
hunting  is  nevertheless  an  important  matter  to  them,  for  it  is 
chiefly  by  the  chase  that  they  are  enabled  to  satisfy  the  hunger 
from  which  they  are  seldom  free. 


88 


CHAPTER  IX 


TRAVEL 

It  is  only  during  the  last  ten  years  that  the  Mission  has  been 
enabled  to  found  permanent  stations,  and  to  carry  on  a regular 
and  organized  work  among  the  Lenguas.  In  order  to  win  any 
influence  over  a people  of  wild  and  roving  disposition,  forced  by 
circumstances  to  be  continually  moving  from  place  to  place  in 
search  of  a precarious  subsistence,  it  is  necessary  for  one  who 
undertakes  such  a task  to  take  part  in  every  phase  of  their 
strange  life;  in  fact,  he  must  become  an  Indian,  until  such  time 
as  his  purpose  has  been  accomplished.  Had  I not  taken  this 
course,  it  is  extremely  questionable  whether  these  people  could 
ever  have  been  satisfactorily  or  adequately  reached.  It  was 
absolutely  essential  to  acquire  a knowledge  of  their  strange 
language,  and  to  become  acquainted  with  their  character  and  all 
ph  ases  of  their  life. 

My  early  years  were  therefore  spent  in  moving  about  from 
village  to  village,  and  in  living  in  the  closest  intimacy  with 
these  children  of  nature ; and  as  it  was  my  object  to  get  into 
touch  with  as  many  clans  and  tribes  as  possible,  I spent  these 
years  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  continually  coming  into 
contact  with  new  people,  who,  although  in  the  main  alike, 
varied  somewhat  in  characteristics,  customs,  and  habits,  and 
among  whom  I found  a considerable  variety  of  traditions  and 
religious  opinions. 

Instead  of  wearying  the  reader  with  a bald  and  dry  enumera- 
tion of  the  native  laws,  customs,  and  modes  of  living,  I shall 
leave  him  to  gather  these  for  himself  as  they  are  incidentally 

89 


TRAVEL 

unfolded  in  the  following  narrative  of  some  of  my  journeys,  and 
elsewhere  in  this  work. 

Little  more  than  eighteen  months  had  elapsed  since  I had 
begun  my  travels  in  the  interior,  when  I succeeded  in  establish- 
ing temporary  headquarters  at  Thlagnasinkinmith,  where  a 
considerable  number  of  Indians  had  gathered  round  me.  The 
Venerable  Archdeacon  Shimield,  of  the  South  American 
Missionary  Society,  joined  me  there  for  a time,  to  estimate 
for  himself  the  possibilities  of  forming  a Mission  in  this 
country.  In  order  to  give  him  a hearty  welcome,  I arranged 
with  the  Indians  that  we  should  hold  a great  feast  on  his 
arrival.  Preparations  were  accordingly  made,  messengers  were 
sent  out  to  invite  the  neighbouring  villagers,  and  over  four 
hundred  and  fifty  people  gathered  to  welcome  him. 

Just  before  his  arrival  I hired  a bullock- cart  from  a wood- 
cutter on  the  river- bank,  and  endeavoured  to  take  it  inland. 
The  difficulties  were  considerable,  and  they  were  aggravated  by 
the  bad  weather  that  set  in.  However,  the  cart  arrived  safely  at 
the  settlement,  greatly  to  the  surprise  and  delight  of  the  natives. 
The  attempt  proved  so  far  successful  that  I purchased  a cart 
and  bullocks,  which  greatly  facilitated  further  operations. 

While  the  Archdeacon  was  with  me,  our  provisions  ran 
extremely  low,  and  we  were  reduced  for  ten  days  to  a diet  of 
small  black  beans.  The  Archdeacon  dryly  remarked  that  he  had 
frequently  heard  the  expression,  “ I will  give  you  beans,”  but 
that  he  had  never  realized  its  full  import  till  now.  Another  of 
his  hardships  on  this  visit  was  that  he  could  never  enjoy  a 
smoke  until  the  villagers  had  gone  to  sleep.  This  was  on 
account  of  the  Indian  custom  of  courteously  exchanging  pipes 
whenever  they  met,  and  of  passing  the  pipe  round  from  mouth 
to  mouth  when  in  company.  This  is  considered  to  be  the 
height  of  friendliness,  and  it  is  a great  breach  of  etiquette  on 
the  part  of  a foreigner  not  to  comply  with  the  formalities. 
Having  adopted  in  great  part  the  Indian  customs,  and  having 
by  this  time  spent  more  than  five  years  among  Indians,  I was 
not  at  all  inconvenienced  by  it,  but  he  naturally  was,  and  with 
some  justification,  for  it  is  rather  unpleasant  to  take  the  pipe 

90 


TRAVEL 


from  the  mouth  of  a not  over-clean  savage,  who  has  perhaps 
been  eating  the  flesh  of  a savoury  rattle-snake,  and,  without 
wiping  the  mouth-piece  (which  would  be  the  height  of  dis- 
courtesy), to  put  it  in  one’s  own  mouth  and  proceed  to  smoke. 
But  I had  found  it  expedient  in  non-essentials  to  enter  into  all 
the  ways  of  the  Indian,  that  I might  thereby  the  more  easily  win 
his  confidence. 

As  business  required  that  both  the  Archdeacon  and  myself 
should  leave  the  settlement  for  a time  and  visit  Concepcion,  I 
left  the  little  property  that  we  had  in  charge  of  the  chief  men 
of  the  village.  In  about  a fortnight  we  returned,  bringing  with 
us  the  cart  and  provisions  and  a few  Indians  who  had  accompanied 
us  to  the  river.  About  halfway  out  to  the  settlement  a violent 
storm  broke  upon  us,  and  it  was  necessary  for  the  cart  to 
remain  there  till  the  morning.  The  Archdeacon  and  myself, 
with  an  Indian,  resolved  to  push  on  in  spite  of  the  darkness,  in 
order  to  try  and  reach  the  village,  which  was  quite  eighteen 
miles  away.  I will  quote  the  Archdeacon’s  own  words  in  his 
report  to  the  Society  of  his  experiences  : 

“ We  covered  up  the  stores  in  the  cart  as  well  as  we  could, 
and  by  that  time  the  storm  had  burst  in  all  its  fury.  The 
thunder  and  lightning  were  terrific,  and  the  rain  came  down  in 
sheets.  We  were  quickly  drenched  to  the  skin,  and  the  camp 
was  soon  turned  into  a lake.  It  was  impossible  for  the  bullocks 
to  go  on  in  such  a storm  ; several  large  swamps  lay  between  us 
and  the  tolclo  (Indian  village),  and  the  animals  were  already 
tired.  The  cart  must  wait  till  morning,  but  the  prospect  of 
standing  or  sitting  all  night  in  water  a foot  deep  was  one  which 
made  me  determine  to  try  to  reach  the  toldo. 

“ Leaving  the  cart  in  charge  of  the  assistant  and  the  Indians, 
Mr.  Grubb  and  I mounted  our  horses,  and,  accompanied  by  an 
Indian,  we  pushed  on  through  the  storm.  The  lightning  darted 
round  us  like  arrows  of  fire  ; we  were  almost  blinded  by  its 
brilliance,  and  bewildered  by  the  tropical  rain  driving  in  our 
faces.  The  camp  was  covered  with  water  nearly  to  the  horses’ 
knees,  and  the  darkness  between  the  flashes  of  lightning  was 
intense.  No  one,  I believe,  but  an  Indian  could  have  found  the 

91 


TRAVEL 


way.  We  reached  the  toldo  at  midnight  soaked  with  water, 
and  with  worn-out  horses. 

“We  hoped  that  then  our  troubles  would  be  over,  but  were 
disappointed,  for  we  found  our  huts  flooded  with  water.  Going 
into  the  largest  of  them,  we  had  to  seize  what  dry  clothes  we 
could  and  beat  a hasty  retreat,  for  a colony  of  ants  had  taken 
possession  during  our  absence,  and  as  we  entered  they  swarmed 
over  us  from  head  to  foot,  stinging  us  so  severely  that  we  were 
speedily  routed.  The  smaller  hut  was  half  full  of  water,  and  we 
had  to  mount  the  table  to  change  our  things,  and  pick  off  the 
ants  from  our  bodies. 

“ The  rain  continued  for  a week.  There  was  no  chance  of 
drying  our  wet  clothes  and  baggage  ; the  boots  we  took  off 
were  green  with  mildew  in  the  morning ; and,  to  add  to  our 
discomfort,  the  stores  which  arrived  in  the  cart  next  day  were 
nearly  all  spoiled  by  the  wet.  So  the  Indians,  as  well  as  our- 
selves, had  to  be  content  with  very  short  commons  for  a 
week.” 

On  my  arrival  at  the  station  I was  surprised  to  find  no 
Indians  there.  I confess  I had  some  misgivings  at  first,  but 
my  Indian  companion  soon  called  my  attention  to  fires  near  the 
forest  some  distance  away,  and  on  closer  examination  we  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  people  for  some  reason  must  have 
removed  thither  and  camped.  I sent  him  off  to  get  firing  and 
to  inquire  the  reason.  He  returned  presently,  accompanied  by 
a few  Indians  bringing  live  fire-brands.  While  waiting  for  the 
kettle  to  boil,  we  managed  to  get  rid  of  the  ants,  and  changed 
our  clothes.  Water  was  lying  on  the  ground  everywhere,  and 
there  must  have  been  a seven-inch  fall  of  rain  that  night. 

After  a meagre  supper  we  settled  down  to  sleep  as  best  we 
could,  the  storm  raging  without.  But  before  the  Indians  re- 
tired I gathered  that  a man  had  died  during  my  absence,  and 
that  they  had  burnt  their  booths  and  retreated  to  the  forest 
through  fear  of  his  spirit.  Had  it  not  been  for  our  huts  and 
possessions,  they  would  have  removed  much  further  off ; but 
they  wanted  to  remain  in  the  vicinity,  expecting  my  return. 
They  strongly  urged  us  to  sleep  at  their  village  that  night,  but 

92 


TRAVEL 


we  assured  them  we  much  preferred  to  stay  where  we  were,  as 
we  had  no  fear  of  any  ghost  of  the  dead. 

Finding  remonstrance  vain,  they  at  last  departed  ; but  early 
in  the  morning  I heard  Pinse-apawa  outside,  cautiously  calling 
to  me.  He  received  no  answer  at  first,  so  he  called  again,  but, 
as  we  wanted  to  be  rid  of  him  and  sleep  a little  longer,  I 
shouted  to  him  to  go  and  boil  my  kettle.  I think  he  was  sur- 
prised to  find  us  unharmed  by  the  spirit  ; but  when,  after 
further  questioning,  I declared  that  we  had  slept  well,  he 
seemed  still  more  surprised.  The  very  idea  of  our  being  able 
to  sleep  when  we  knew  that  a man  had  just  died  in  the  vicinity, 
and  that  his  ghost  must  be  prowling  about,  was  more  than  the 
Indian  could  comprehend. 

Shortly  after  this  the  Archdeacon  left  me.  I accompanied 
him  to  the  river  on  an  Indian  horse,  riding  bareback  the  thirty 
odd  miles,  as  it  would  not  allow  itself  to  be  saddled.  This 
would  have  been  a heavy  strain  on  a man  unaccustomed  to  it, 
but  during  my  sojourn  with  the  Indians  I had  often  joined 
them  in  breaking  in  their  wild  horses,  always  riding  bareback, 
as  their  habit  is,  with  only  string  for  a bit  and  a plaited  deer- 
hide  bridle.  Many  of  my  readers  may  be  aware  that  the  usual 
custom  in  South  America  differs  from  that  in  vogue  in  England. 
There  the  horses  are  trained  to  answer  the  bridle  by  pressure  on 
the  side  of  the  neck. 

On  my  return  from  escorting  the  Archdeacon,  I was  accom- 
panied on  horseback  by  an  old  witch-doctor  from  the  north  and 
his  son.  All  went  well  until  we  reached  the  head  waters  of  the 
River  Fernandez.  I was  leading,  and  made  straight  for  the 
usual  crossing,  which  was  very  wide  and  rather  deep  ; but  the 
witch-doctor  called  to  me,  and  said  that  there  was  a better  ford 
farther  down.  We  travelled  on  in  the  pitch-darkness  for  some 
time,  and  then  attempted  the  crossing,  but  only  floundered  in 
the  soft  mud.  We  tried  again  at  another  place,  with  the  same 
result.  I then  angrily  insisted  on  going  back  to  the  original 
ford.  After  a time  they  consented.  I had  two  dogs  with  me, 
and,  contrary  to  their  usual  custom,  they  refused  to  follow  me 
into  the  water.  I told  the  witch-doctor  to  go  on  ahead  while 

93 


TRAVEL 


I tried  to  coax  the  dogs  into  the  stream  ; but  before  I was  half- 
way across,  my  companions,  who  had  already  reached  the  other 
bank,  whipped  up  their  horses  and  dashed  into  the  forest, 
through  which  the  path  lay.  I followed  them  for  a time, 
although  it  was  pitch-dark,  but  eventually  could  not  tell  where 
I was.  I accordingly  stood  still  and  shouted.  After  repeating 
this  for  some  time,  I heard  a faint  call  in  the  distance.  I 
shouted  again  at  intei’vals,  and  waited. 

It  was  about  1.30  a.m.  when  my  companions  eventually 
rejoined  me,  and  I was  by  no  means  in  a pleasant  humour,  being 
wet,  cold,  mud-bespattered,  and  much  worried  by  mosquitos. 
I upbraided  them  for  their  conduct,  but  the  witch-doctor 
assured  me  that  there  was  a devil  at  the  crossing,  that  the  dogs 
had  seen  it,  and  that  was  the  reason  why  they  would  not  enter, 
adding  that  it  was  a wonder  we  had  got  through  at  all.  This 
incident  was  annoying,  but  was  only  what  one  must  expect 
amongst  people  in  their  condition. 

My  anger  increased  later  on,  when  I returned  to  the  settle- 
ment, for  I found  that  the  old  wizard  had  given  the  Indians 
quite  a false  account  of  the  matter.  His  version  was  that  while 
I was  crossing  the  river,  the  devil  had  caught  me  by  the  leg,  and 
had  nearly  succeeded  in  pulling  me  off  my  horse,  and  that  in  our 
headlong  flight  I had  lost  my  way  in  the  forest,  and,  being  in 
dreadful  fear,  I had  called  piteously  to  him  to  come  to  my 
protection.  I promptly  proceeded  to  explain  matters  to  the 
Indians,  but  I am  quite  sure  that  for  many  years  they  accepted 
the  witch-doctor’s  story. 

As  the  planting  season  had  arrived,  the  people  who  had 
joined  me  from  far  distant  villages  now  began  to  return  to  their 
own  districts.  My  scope  for  usefulness  at  Thlagnasinkinmith 
had  therefore  become,  for  the  time  being,  so  restricted  that  I 
took  an  early  opportunity  to  move  further  inland,  and  spend  a 
few  months  in  visiting  various  Indian  centres.  I accordingly 
decided  to  join  a small  party  who  were  the  last  to  leave.  We 
had  hoped  to  start  soon  after  dawn,  but  so  many  preparations 
had  to  be  made  that  it  was  late  in  the  morning  before  we  got 
away.  My  own  preparations  were  quite  simple.  All  that  I 

94 


TRAVEL 


required  was  carried  with  me  on  mv  horse.  The  women  were 
busy  from  the  first  light  packing  up  their  household  goods  and 
filling  water-bottles,  while  the  men  searched  for  the  horses. 

When  all  was  ready,  the  women  with  the  children  were 
mounted  on  the  horses.  As  the  Indians  do  not  use  saddles, 
they  fix  all  their  belongings  to  their  own  persons,  having  nothing 
else  to  tie  them  to.  Lashed  upon  each  side  of  the  women  were 
two  large  reed  mats,  with  which  they  easily  form  a temporary 
shelter  when  camping.  Tied  round  their  waists,  and  resting 
behind  and  in  front,  large  string-woven  bags  were  carried 
containing  their  goods,  and  water-jars  and  cooking-pots  hung 
from  their  necks  and  shoulders. 

Two  children  were  perched  on  the  bundles,  the  elder  in  each 
case  being  seated  behind,  taking  firm  hold  of  the  woman,  while 
she  held  the  younger  one  in  front  of  her.  As  there  were  few 
mounts,  the  other  women  followed  behind  in  Indian  file,  bending 
under  heavy  burdens  of  similar  household  property,  packed  in 
net-bags,  suspended  from  their  foreheads,  and  resting  on  their 
backs.  A few  old  men  led  the  way,  carrying  only  their  weapons. 
The  other  men  of  the  party  had  set  off  a little  earlier,  in  order 
to  hunt  on  the  way  to  the  first  encampment.  I brought  up  the 
rear  of  this  strange  cav  alcade. 

After  pushing  steadily  on  over  perfectly  dry  but  rough  paths, 
sometimes  over  open  plains,  with  a hot  sun  pouring  down  upon  us, 
at  other  times  working  our  way  through  long  tangled  grass  which 
reached  to  the  shoulders,  and  occasionally  entering  the  welcome 
shade  of  a forest  path,  we  eventually  reached  the  mid-day  camp- 
ing place.  There  we  found  one  of  the  hunters  resting  under  a 
tree.  My  friends  were  cheered  to  hear  from  him  that  the 
hunting-party  had  shot  a large  deer  and  an  ostrich. 

When  they  had  relieved  themselves  of  their  burdens,  and 
tethered  the  horses,  they  rested  for  a little  while,  and  then 
proceeded  to  light  fires  and  procure  water,  the  little  they  had 
brought  with  them  being  quite  insufficient.  As  there  had  been 
a prolonged  spell  of  dry  weather,  the  only  procurable  water  was 
that  found  in  the  caraguata1  plant,  which  is  the  salvation  of 
1 See  Appendix — Fauna  and  Flora. 

95 


TRAVEL 


Chaco  travellers  in  the  dry  season.  Its  long  channelled  leaves 
collect  the  dew  and  rain,  and  thus  a supply  of  water  is  preserved 
for  some  months.  I accompanied  the  women  to  the  forest  near 
the  place  where  this  valuable  plant  was  to  be  found,  carrying 
with  us  all  available  pots  and  jars. 

The  caraguata , which  in  shape  resembles  a large  aloe,  is 
armed  with  innumerable  sharp  thorns,  which  prevent  animals 
from  drinking  its  water,  and  at  the  same  time  make  it  very 
difficult  for  man  to  handle  it.  The  sharp  spiky  leaves  we  first 
lopped  off  with  a knife,  and  then,  cutting  the  plants  out  at  the 
roots,  we  held  them  over  one  of  the  clay  pots,  and,  stabbing  them 
from  below,  allowed  the  water  to  run  out.  Each  plant  gave  us 
a good  cupful  of  water.  As  soon  as  one  vessel  was  full,  we 
strained  the  water  into  another  through  a bunch  of  grass,  in 
order  to  free  it  from  the  innumerable  spiders  and  other  insects, 
as  well  as  vegetable  matter,  which  collect  in  these  plants. 

On  returning  to  the  camp  with  our  supply,  we  found  the 
hunters  had  arrived,  and  cooking  had  already  begun.  A large 
portion  of  the  freshly-killed  meat  was  spitted  on  sticks  at  the 
side  of  the  fires,  as  there  was  no  time  to  sun-dry  any  of  it,  and 
meat  soon  goes  bad  in  this  hot  climate.  The  rest  was  placed 
in  the  pots  to  boil.  While  this  was  cooking,  the  people  threw 
smaller  pieces  on  the  embers  to  toast  and  eat  in  the  interval. 

In  the  late  afternoon  we  resumed  our  journey,  taking  with  us 
the  cooked  meat  left  over,  and  at  sunset  we  camped  for  the 
night  near  the  dry  bed  of  a stream,  in  the  hope  of  finding  a 
little  pool  of  water.  As  there  is  hardly  any  twilight  in  this 
country,  it  was  soon  too  dark  to  look  for  “caraguata'”;  so  we 
followed  the  bed  of  the  stream  in  search  of  a water-hole,  which 
we  were  not  long  in  finding,  but  which  contained  very  little  water, 
and  that  covered  with  a green,  slimy  scum,  which  gave  forth 
a very  unpleasant  smell,  partly  owing  to  a few  dead  fish  that 
we  found  in  it.  As  there  was  no  alternative,  we  filled  our  pots 
and  returned  to  the  camp. 

It  was  a beautifully  clear  night,  and  as  we  sat  round  the  fires, 
chatting,  and  eating  the  meat  we  had  brought  with  us,  I learnt 
from  my  companions  that  a girl  with  whom  I was  acquainted 

96 


An  Indian  Extracting  Honey  from  a Hole  in  a Tree 

Smoke  is  often  used  as  a protection.  Young  bees  are  eaten  as  a delicacy  with  the  honey. 
The  picture  clearly  shows  the  dense  tropical  undergrowth  and  luxuriant  creepers.  Air  plants 
hang  from  the  main  branch,  and  the  thorny  leaves  of  the  caraguata  (or  water  plant)  make 
progress  difficult  and  painful  to  the  naked  feet  and  legs. 


TRAVEL 


was  soon  to  be  married  at  the  village  we  were  travelling  to,  and 
that  the  father  had  already  received  payment  for  her,  in  the 
shape  of  a few  fish-hooks  and  two  iron  hoes  bought  from  the 
Paraguayans.  I was  informed  that  the  marriage  was  not  going 
to  take  place  until  the  algciroba  bean  harvest  began,  in  order 
that  they  might  have  a supply  of  beer  for  the  accompanying 
feast.  I inquired  who  the  husband  was  to  be,  but  could  not 
recognize  him  by  his  name,  although  they  assured  me  that  I 
knew  him  well.  It  turned  out  that  he  was  an  old  friend  of 
mine  called  “ Mitaimang-itakthla,”  who  had  lost  his  wife  some 
time  before.  I had  not  heard  that  he  had  had  a child,  and  that, 
according  to  Indian  custom,  he  had  changed  his  name,  being 
now  called  “ Simpehe-abyabam,”  after  the  name  of  his  child — 
that  is  to  say,  “ the  father  of  Simpehe.”  This  is  a very  curious 
and  awkward  custom,  the  parents  always  changing  their  own 
name  on  the  birth  of  a child,  and  being  afterwards  known  as 
“ the  father  or  mother  of  So-and-so,”  a new  name  being 
assumed  after  every  child  born. 

The  women  and  children  feeling  drowsy,  a general  movement 
was  made  to  prepare  for  the  night’s  rest.  As  the  mosquitos 
were  few,  it  was  unnecessary  to  prepare  smoky  fires  to  keep 
them  off.  The  men  brought  in  three  long  palm-trunks,  and 
placed  them  on  different  sides  of  the  fire,  and  about  ten  feet 
\ away  ; the  women  spread  their  skin-mats  in  rows  on  the  side 
of  the  logs  next  to  the  fire.  They  then  arranged  thern- 
i1  selves  according  to  their  families,  using  the  palms  as  a common 
pillow.  One  of  the  logs  was  reserved  for  me  and  the  young 
men,  and  a few  families  preferred  to  camp  round  little  fires  of 
their  own. 

As  I was  not  sleepy,  I sat  up  with  a few  of  the  men,  chatting 
round  the  fire.  One  of  the  older  men  was  busily  engaged  in 
making  fire-sticks,  by  rubbing  which  together  they  obtain  their 
fire,  and  in  the  course  of  conversation  he  recounted  to  me  their 
tradition  of  its  origin.  In  early  times,  being  unable  to  produce 
fire,  they  were  compelled  to  eat  their  food  in  the  raw  state. 
One  day  an  Indian  was  out  hunting,  but  had  been  unsuccessful 
all  the  morning,  so  towards  midday,  in  order  to  satisfy  the 

97 


G 


TRAVEL 

pangs  of  hunger,  he  repaired  to  the  vicinity  of  a swamp  to 
gather  some  snails. 

While  he  was  eating  these,  his  attention  was  attracted  to  a 
bird  coming  out  from  the  swamp  with  a snail  in  its  bill.  This 
it  seemed  to  deposit  near  a large  tree  some  little  way  off.  It 
then  returned  to  the  swamp  and  brought  up  another  snail,  and 
repeated  this  manoeuvre  several  times.  The  Indian  noticed  that 
from  the  spot  where  the  bird  placed  the  snails  there  arose,  as 
it  were,  a thin  column  of  vapour.  His  curiosity  was  at  once 
aroused. 

After  a time  the  bird  again  flew  away,  and,  determined  to 
unravel  this  mystery,  he  cautiously  proceeded  to  the  place  where 
the  bird  had  risen.  There  he  observed  a number  of  sticks, 
placed  point  to  point,  the  ends  quite  red  and  giving  forth  heat. 
Approaching  timorously,  he  saw  some  snails  placed  close  to 
these  sticks.  As  he  observed  no  signs  of  the  bird’s  return,  and 
being  still  hungry,  he  resolved  to  partake  of  some  of  this  food. 
Putting  forth  his  hand,  he  took  up  a snail,  which  he  instantly 
dropped,  for  it  caused  him  acute  pain.  But  he  was  so  hungry 
that  he  made  another  attempt,  and,  picking  it  up  more  cautiously, 
tasted  it.  He  found  it  delicious,  and  better  than  anything  he 
had  ever  tasted  before.  He  took  another  and  another,  and  so 
keenly  enjoyed  them  that  he  made  up  his  mind  he  would  never 
again  eat  raw  snails. 

He  was  somewhat  afraid  of  this  bird,  but  as  it  had  not 
returned  he  seized  several  of  the  sticks  and  ran  off  with  them 
to  his  village,  where  he  told  his  friends  of  his  find.  They 
immediately  got  a supply  of  dry  wood  from  the  forest  in  order 
to  keep  alive  this  invaluable  acquisition,  which  they  henceforth 
called  tathla,  or  fire.  That  night  they  cooked  their  meat 
and  vegetables  for  the  first  time,  and  gradually  found  new  uses 
for  their  discovery. 

When  the  bird,  on  returning  to  the  place  where  it  had  left 
the  snails,  discovered  the  loss  of  its  fire,  it  was  filled  with  rage, 
and  determined  to  be  revenged  on  the  thief.  Its  anger  was 
increased  by  the  fact  that  it  could  not  produce  more  fire.  Soar- 
ing up  into  the  sky,  it  circled  about  in  search  of  the  thief,  and, 

98 


Procuring  Fire  by  Friction 

A stick  of  the  Hapin  tree  is  used  as  a drill,  which  is  worked  between  the  palms  of  the  hands 
in  a prepared  notch  of  another  stick.  The  tinder-horn,  filled  with  soft  dry  fibre,  is  kept  handy, 
into  which  the  ignited  dust  is  smartly  tipped  and  coaxed  by  gentle  blowing.  An  arrow-shaft 
is  fixedjto  the  perpendicular  stick  in  order  to  give  additional  purchase. 


TRAVEL 


to  its  amazement,  saw  the  people  of  the  village  sitting  around 
the  stolen  treasure,  enjoying  its  warmth  and  cooking  their  food 
by  it.  Filled  with  thoughts  of  vengeance,  it  retired  to  the 
forest,  where  it  created  a thunderstorm,  accompanied  by  terrible 
lightning,  which  did  much  damage  and  terrified  the  people. 

The  old  man  told  me  that,  when  it  thunders,  it  is  an  indica- 
tion that  the  thunder-bird  is  angry,  and  is  seeking  to  punish 
them  by  fire  from  the  sky,  for  ever  since  the  bird  lost  its  fire  it 
has  had  to  eat  its  food  raw. 

It  is  curious  that  the  Indians  should  believe  such  a fable  as 
this,  since  they  themselves  produce  fire  by  friction  ; nor  are  they 
particularly  careful  to  keep  a fire  alight  when  not  required. 
Neither  are  they  afraid  of  either  thunder  or  lightning. 

After  the  conclusion  of  this  interesting  story  we  stretched 
ourselves  out  by  the  fire,  with  our  palm-log  for  a pillow,  and 
were  soon  asleep. 

Early  next  morning  we  resumed  our  way,  but  as  our  destina- 
tion was  still  about  two  days1  journey  off,  I left  the  party 
that  afternoon  with  one  Indian  guide,  and  struck  off  north- 
wards, with  the  intention  of  visiting  a hunting-camp  of  which 
I was  told,  hoping  to  reach  it  that  night.  I explained  to  the 
party  that  as  we  could  travel  much  faster  than  they,  we  should 
probably  arrive  at  their  village  as  soon  as  they  did,  if  not 
before. 

We  journeyed  on  till  midday  through  open  country  and 
palm  forest,  and  being  very  thirsty,  we  looked  out  for  woods  in 
which  we  might  find  caraguata,  but  we  met  with  nothing  but 
small  copses,  and  the  few  plants  they  contained  were  dry.  We 
pushed  on  in  spite  of  the  intense  heat,  but  about  four  o’clock 
our  horses  became  so  exhausted  that  we  were  compelled  to  walk 
and  lead  them.  We  were  now  suffering  so  much  from  thirst, 
after  having  gone  for  ten  hours  without  drinking,  that  conver- 
sation became  painful.  There  was  no  alternative  but  to  press 
on,  and  about  seven  o’clock,  when  it  was  quite  dark,  we  crossed 
the  dry  bed  of  a swamp  stream.  Midway,  among  the  tall  reeds, 
my  guide  discovered  a small  hole  containing  water.  He  knelt 
down,  and  greedily  took  a few  mouthfuls,  but  immediately 

99 


TRAVEL 


vomited.  In  spite  of  this,  forced  by  intolerable  thirst,  I drank 
a little  of  it,  but  with  the  same  result.  The  horses  would  not 
touch  it,  and  we  had  to  be  content  with  rinsing  our  parched 
mouths,  for  on  examination  we  found  that  it  was  putrid  with 
dead  fish.  Weary,  feverish,  and  sick,  we  pushed  on  through 
the  night,  still  leading  our  horses. 

It  was  evident  from  the  tracks  which  we  found  that  the 
hunters  had  moved  their  camp.  About  two  o’clock  in  the 
morning  we  entered  a large  swamp,  and,  after  having  gone 
about  half  a mile,  we  were  rejoiced  to  find  ourselves  walking  in 
mud.  We  hastened  our  steps,  and  found  the  mud  became  more 
liquid,  till  at  last  we  reached  water.  Instantly  the  horses  began 
to  drink,  and,  stooping  down  to  taste,  we  found  it  tolerably 
drinkable.  How  we  enjoyed  that  thick,  muddy  water,  and  how 
long  and  deep  were  the  draughts  we  took ! We  felt  much 
refreshed,  and  soon  reached  the  other  side.  Here,  without 
troubling  to  light  a fire,  we  tethered  our  horses,  and  lay  down 
to  sleep,  having  eaten  nothing  all  that  day. 

When  the  sun  rose  we  sought  for  the  tracks  of  the  hunters, 
and  were  not  long  in  finding  them  and  in  reaching  the  camp. 
Food  was  placed  before  us,  and  we  soon  forgot  the  sufferings  of 
our  journey. 

I was  anxious  to  make  a sketch-map  of  the  district,  and  inquired 
of  the  people  the  situation  of  the  surrounding  villages.  Pulling 
out  my  pocket-compass,  which  they  had  never  before  seen,  I 
began  to  take  my  bearings.  I was  soon  the  centre  of  a curious 
crowd,  and  some  of  them  asked  me  what  the  thing  was,  and  why 
I used  it.  I explained  to  them  that  the  little  blue  hand  always 
pointed  to  the  north  wherever  I happened  to  be,  but  they 
looked  incredulous.  One  old  man  took  it  from  me  and  examined 
it  carefully.  He  noticed  that,  whichever  way  he  tui'ned,  the 
little  hand,  as  I had  explained,  always  pointed  north.  The 
Indians  never  make  any  mistake  about  the  cardinal  points ; in 
fact,  they  rarely  use  such  expressions  as  “ the  right  hand  ” or 
“ the  left  hand,”  preferring  to  say  “ on  the  north  side  ” or  “ on 
the  south  side,”  as  the  case  may  be.  The  behaviour  of  this 
little  pointer  puzzled  the  old  man.  Presently  a fresh  thought 

100 


TRAVEL 

occurred  to  him,  and  he  put  the  compass  under  his  blanket. 
After  turning  it  about  and  upside  down,  he  peeped  underneath 
and  watched  the  needle  settle,  but  he  was  surprised  beyond 
measure  to  find  it  still  pointing  to  the  north,  and  a lively 
discussion  ensued. 

They  knew  that  my  country  was  far  distant  in  the  north,  and, 
after  a great  deal  of  talking,  the  old  man  declared  it  to  be  his 
firm  opinion  that,  before  I had  left  my  own  land,  I had  caught 
a little  blue  devil  and  had  secured  it  in  this  case,  and  that 
it  was  continually  pointing  out  my  road  homewards  with  its 
finger. 

After  enjoying  a rest  and,  what  was  more  necessary,  a good 
sleep,  we  started  on  our  journey  to  rejoin  my  companions  by  a 
new  route,  as  we  had  no  desire  to  repeat  our  experiences  of  the 
night  before.  On  arrival  at  the  village  some  time  after  night- 
fall, we  found  that  our  party  had  already  reached  it. 

That  day  news  had  come  in  of  the  death  of  an  old  resident  in 
a village  to  the  south.  It  appears  that  he  had  been  very  ill  for 
a long  time,  and  had  been  suffering  intense  pain.  He  was  very 
old  and  frail,  and  could  not  possibly  have  lived  much  longer. 
His  relatives  grieved  to  see  him  suffering,  and,  realizing  that 
there  was  no  possible  hope  for  him,  agreed  to  hasten  his  death. 
His  brother  and  son-in-law  took  an  early  opportunity  to  carry 
this  resolve  into  effect.  Taking  the  old  man  unawares,  the  son- 
in-law  suddenly  wrapped  a blanket  round  his  head,  while  the 
brother  at  the  same  time  sat  upon  his  chest,  and  so  he  was 
suffocated. 

I was  much  shocked  at  hearing  this  gruesome  story,  and  yet 
I had  to  admit  that,  in  the  case  of  these  heathen,  it  was  not 
what  we  should  regard  as  cruelty.  Their  unnatural  act  was 
really  prompted  by  kindness,  and  by  a desire  to  adopt  extreme 
measures,  rather  than  let  the  sick  man  suffer. 

I stayed  some  weeks  at  this  village,  occasionally  paying  visits 
to  neighbouring  encampments.  Hearing  of  a large  feast  some 
days’  journey  to  the  west,  I set  out  in  that  direction  with  an 
Indian  guide.  On  arriving  at  the  village,  I found  over  one 
hundred  and  seventy  people  gathered  together  for  the  occasion. 

101 


TRAVEL 


Most  of  the  men  were  very  intoxicated,  and  I received  rather  a 
doubtful  welcome.  While  some  appeared  delighted  to  see  me, 
and  expressed  their  pleasure  that  I had  arrived  in  time  to  join 
in  their  festivities,  the  Chief  and  some  others,  almost  at  the  same 
moment,  accused  me  of  having,  by  witchcraft,  killed  one  of  their 
horses,  as  they  had  found  it  dead  the  day  before  my  arrival.  I 
argued  the  matter  with  them,  and  suggested  that  death  was 
probably  due  to  snake-bite,  or  perhaps  lightning ; but  they 
would  accept  none  of  my  explanations,  and  did  not  conceal  their 
anger.  Although  I spent  some  time  in  the  village,  I did  not 
take  part  in  the  feast,  and  deemed  it  advisable  to  make  my 
camp  under  some  trees  a little  way  off. 

My  guide,  as  might  be  expected,  was  taking  his  full  part  in 
the  merry-making,  so,  being  alone,  I retired  to  rest.  Several 
times  during  the  early  part  of  the  night  natives  visited  me,  and 
urged  me  to  come  out  from  under  my  mosquito-net  and  join 
them  in  the  dances ; but  I refused  all  their  invitations.  About 
midnight,  as  I was  feeling  thirsty,  and  had  no  water  by  me,  I 
called  out  for  some  to  be  brought  to  me.  The  Indian  word  for 
water  is  yingmin , and  for  beer  anmin.  One  old  man,  mistaking 
my  call,  and  being  himself  in  rather  a muddled  condition, 
thought  I had  shouted  for  anmin,  and  presently  arrived  with 
a calabash  full  of  beer.  This  I refused,  and  told  him  I wanted 
water.  He  evidently  felt  amused,  and,  calling  to  a girl  to  fetch 
water,  he  himself  drank  the  beer  as  he  sat  by  me,  but  for  the 
rest  of  that  night  he  never  seemed  to  have  got  rid  of  the  idea 
that  I wanted  beer,  and  kept  on  visiting  me  with  further 
supplies,  greatly  to  my  annoyance.  On  two  occasions,  finding 
me  asleep,  he  lifted  up  my  net,  letting  in  swarms  of  mosquitos, 
and,  stumbling  forward,  drenched  me  with  the  beer,  for  his 
calabash  held  at  least  two  quarts.  What  with  the  insects  and 
the  discomfort  of  my  beer-soaked  bed  and  garments,  I enjoyed 
little  sleep  that  night. 

In  the  morning,  as  I had  no  further  desire  to  remain,  I 
determined  to  visit  a village  about  half  a day’s  journey  off. 
My  guide  wished  to  linger  at  the  feast,  so  I applied  to  the 
Chief,  Mechi,  for  another.  He  told  me  that  he  would  procure 

102 


A Group  of  Lenguas 

Lenguas  grouped  on  a tree  uprooted  by  a “pampero,  ' a violent  and  sudden  storm  peculiar  to  some  parts  of  South  America.  The 

davit-shaped  arm  is  part  of  the  root. 


TRAVEL 


me  one,  but  after  waiting  some  time  I became  impatient,  and 
called  him  up  again.  He  was  very  intoxicated,  and  said  he 
could  induce  no  one  to  accompany  me.  I then  insisted  on  his 
acting  as  my  guide.  After  a few  hot  words  he  consented,  and 
his  horse  was  brought.  But  it  was  soon  evident  that  he  could 
not  keep  his  balance  on  it,  as  he  fell  to  the  ground  at  each 
attempt  to  mount.  At  last  a happy  thought  came  to  him,  and 
he  commandeered  a young  lad,  who  was  made  to  get  up  behind 
and  hold  him  on.  With  this  strange  escort  I commenced  my 
journey.  My  new  guide  gradually  became  sober,  although  he 
kept  up  a confused  conversation  the  whole  way,  the  main  drift 
of  which  seemed  to  be  that  native  beer  was  very  good,  and  that 
it  really  had  very  few  bad  effects. 

On  arriving  at  my  destination,  I found  that  a feast  was  also 
contemplated  there,  on  the  conclusion  of  the  one  I had  just  left, 
and  that  preparations  had  already  begun,  the  women  being 
busily  engaged  in  making  flour  from  the  bean  of  the  algaroba 
tree,  which  is  fairly  common  in  the  drier  parts  of  the  Chaco. 
It  produces  a plentiful  supply  of  a very  nourishing  bean,  which 
forms  a large  proportion  of  the  Indian  food  while  it  is  in 
season,  being  not  only  pounded  into  flour  for  cakes,  but  largely 
used  for  brewing  a native  beer. 

I had  no  wish  to  be  present  at  this  second  feast,  and  deter- 
mined to  make  my  way  back  again  to  Thlagnasinkinmith,  as  I 
wanted  to  avoid  being  overtaken  by  the  heavy  rains,  which  were 
shortly  expected.  I arranged  with  three  Indian  lads  to  accom- 
pany me,  and,  all  being  ready  for  a start  in  the  early  afternoon, 
I began  to  take  my  leave  of  the  people.  My  three  companions 
were  indulging  in  a game  of  hockey,  which  is  indigenous  among 
these  people,  but  in  a very  primitive  form,  and  I had  great 
difficulty  in  persuading  them  to  make  a start. 

All  went  well  until  the  evening  of  the  second  day,  when  the 
gathering  darkness  compelled  us  to  camp  under  a few  trees  in 
an  open  plain.  We  had  previously  observed  that  heavy  banks 
of  clouds  were  gathering  in  the  west  and  south,  but  the  Indians 
were  of  opinion  that  the  threatened  storm  would  not  break  till 
the  following  morning.  I therefore  looked  forward  to  a corn- 

103 


TRAVEL 


fortable  night’s  rest,  but  I was  sadly  disappointed.  About 
seven  o’clock  it  began  to  thunder,  and  forked  lightning  shot 
across  the  sky  in  all  directions.  Still,  it  did  not  rain,  and  I soon 
got  under  my  net.  I had  been  asleep  only  a short  time  when 
my  Indians  awoke  me,  informing  me  that  the  storm  was  about 
to  burst. 

I hastily  arose  in  order  to  secure  my  more  perishable 
belongings,  and,  gathering  together  my  saddle-gear  and  bedding, 

I covered  them  up  as  well  as  I could  at  the  root  of  a tree.  I , 
had  hardly  done  so  when  the  roar  of  the  wind  was  heard  in  the 
south,  and  a great  black  cloud  stretched  itself  across  the  horizon 
close  to  the  ground.  It  was  evident  that  a dust-storm  was  upon 
us,  and,  together  with  the  Indians,  I crouched  down  and  covered 
my  mouth  and  nose.  In  a few  minutes  we  were  smothered  with 
dust  and  nearly  choked.  Shortly  afterwards  great  drops  of  rain 
began  to  fall.  The  thunder  was  terrific  and  the  lightning 
exceptionally  vivid.  The  torrential  downpour  soon  put  out  our 
fire  and  chilled  us  to  the  bone.  We  all  huddled  together  for 
warmth,  but  were  very  soon  actually  sitting  in  water,  and  in 
this  miserable  condition  we  were  forced  to  pass  the  night. 

When  morning  dawned  it  was  still  raining,  but  we  made 
preparations  to  move  on.  The  lower-lying  land  was  entirely 
covered  with  some  inches  of  water,  and  the  previously  dry 
stream-beds  and  swamps  were  already  almost  half-full.  About 
midday  we  reached  a deserted  hut,  and,  making  a fire,  we  were 
able  partially  to  dry  our  clothes. 

The  rest  of  the  journey  was  hard  for  both  man  and  beast. 
Often  the  horses  were  tethered  in  water  over  their  fetlocks. 
Frequently  we  had  to  cross  gullies,  where  the  water  nearly 
covered  my  saddle,  and  our  horses  were  at  times  momentarily 
off  their  feet.  On  arriving  at  the  larger  streams  we  had  to 
make  rafts  to  transport  our  belongings,  and  across  the  smaller 
we  swam  with  our  goods,  in  instalments,  tied  upon  our  heads. 

After  six  days’  journeying  under  these  miserable  conditions 
we  were  glad  indeed  to  arrive  at  Thlagnasinkinmith. 


104 


CHAPTER  X 


WAR 

Long  before  the  Spanish  Conquest,  the  Indians  of  the  Chaco 
waged  constant  war  against  the  Guarani  Indians  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  River  Paraguay,  and  after  the  Conquest  they  still 
remained  the  terror  of  the  Spanish  settlements.  It  is  the  proud 
boast  of  these  Chaco  peoples,  who  are  practically  independent  to 
the  present  day,  that  they  have  never  been  conquered.  The 
inaccessible  nature  of  their  country,  and  the  fact  that  it  lacks 
such  natural  riches  as  would  rouse  the  cupidity  of  the  foreigner, 
account  for  their  independence  not  having  been  seriously 
menaced.  During  the  last  forty  years,  the  Chaco  tribes  have 
caused  little  trouble  to  the  European,  and  only  some  few  un- 
important skirmishes  have  taken  place.  Their  wars,  during  my 
residence  in  the  country,  have  been  confined  to  the  western  and 
northern  frontiers,  so  that  I have  not  been  an  actual  eye-witness 
of  any  of  their  engagements,  and  can  only  speak  on  the  subject 
of  war  from  the  reports  given  me  by  the  Indians. 

There  are  many  accounts  of  their  wars  in  past  generations, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  discriminate  between  fact  and  fiction. 
About  the  time  of  the  great  Paraguayan  War,  however,  their 
warlike  adventures  come  within  the  scope  of  history.  It  is  an 
acknowledged  fact  that  many  of  them  joined  with  other 
northern  tribes  in  making  incursions  into  Paraguay  proper, 
after  that  country  had  become  enfeebled  by  its  five  years’ 
struggle  against  the  united  forces  of  the  Argentine  and 
Uruguayan  Republics,  and  the  then-existing  Empire  of  Brazil. 
The  Indians  had  sacked  several  settlements  and  some  small 
towns  in  Paraguay,  and  had  taken  thence  several  captives  to 

105 


WAR 

their  fastnesses,  some  of  whom  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
tribes  up  to  my  own  time. 

An  Indian  recounted  to  me  the  following  story  conceniing 
one  of  their  encounters  with  the  Paraguayan  troops,  and  seemed 
very  proud  of  it,  holding  that  it  proved  the  heroism  of  his 
people.  The  Indians  were  attacked  in  the  Chaco  by  a body 
of  cavalry,  and  although  his  tribesmen  were  vastly  superior 
in  numbers,  yet,  owing  to  the  inferiority  of  their  weapons, 
they  found  resistance  impossible.  Some  of  them,  therefore, 
determined  to  sacrifice  their  lives  for  the  common  good,  and 
throwing  themselves  in  a mass  upon  the  cavalry,  clung  to  the 
men  and  horses,  and,  in  spite  of  numbers  of  them  being  cut 
down,  they  succeeded  in  hampering  the  movements  of  the 
troop,  and  thus  enabled  their  comrades  to  close  in  upon  the 
enemy.  Many  of  the  horsemen  were  dragged  from  their  horses 
and  clubbed  on  the  ground.  The  loss  of  the  Indians  was  heavy, 
but  they  found  plenty  of  compensation  in  having  killed  a con- 
siderable number  of  the  hated  foreigner's. 

During  the  past  generation,  several  rather  important  wars 
have  been  waged  against  the  Matacos  in  the  south-west,  and 
the  Kilmikpiyim  in  the  north-north-west,  with  the  result  that 
many  women  and  children  were  taken  prisoners  on  both  sides, 
and  to  the  present  day  it  is  not  exceptional  to  find  among  those 
tribes  some  who  understand  both  languages. 

The  only  important  war  carried  on  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  our  Mission  was  that  between  the  Lenguas  and  the  Kisapang, 
a short  time  before  my  ai’rival  among  them.  This  encounter 
left  a very  bitter  feeling  between  the  two  tribes,  and  even  yet  it 
has  not  quite  died  out,  although  the  spread  of  Christianity  is 
rapidly  leading  to  a more  friendly  and  better  understanding 
between  them.  The  Lengua  conquerors,  among  whom  the 
Mission  has  chiefly  worked,  took  the  initiative  in  offering  the 
hand  of  friendship  to  their  former  enemies,  and  it  is  not  an 
infi’equent  occmrence  now  to  see  Kisapang  and  Lenguas  mixing 
and  working  together  on  friendly  terms  at  the  Mission  stations. 

The  main  causes  leading  to  inter-tribal  war  are  many,  the 
most  frequent  being  the  supposed  evil  wrought  by  the  witch- 

106 


WAR 


doctors  of  one  tribe  against  another.  The  greed  for  acquiring 
the  flocks  and  herds  of  another  tribe,  on  which  covetous  eyes 
have  been  set,  prompts  them  to  wage  a selfish  war  rather  than 
to  negotiate  for  them  by  the  usual  means  of  barter,  common  to 
all  the  tribes.  Another  cause,  and  the  only  other  worth 
mentioning,  is  the  desire  to  possess  themselves  of  a supply  of 
women.  This  is  the  more  strange  because  the  practice  of 
infanticide  is  mainly  directed  towards  keeping  down  the  female 
population,  and,  as  only  a few  tribes  are  polygamous,  the  only 
explanation  I can  give  is  the  natural  desire  to  maintain  the 
vitality  of  their  people,  which,  owing  to  their  custom  of  con- 
tinual intermarriage,  is  seriously  affected. 

It  is,  perhaps,  superfluous  to  state  that  they  have  no  such 
thing  as  a regular  army,  but  every  able-bodied  man  is  expected 
to  bear  his  part  in  time  of  war.  When  hostilities  have  been 
decided  upon  by  the  leaders  of  the  people,  the  various  clans 
are  summoned  by  means  of  red  arrows,  signifying  blood.  These 
are  carried  from  village  to  village  by  messengers,  who  tell  the 
people  the  place  of  rendezvous.  Steps  are  immediately  taken 
to  place  the  aged,  the  women,  children,  and  the  flocks  in  posi- 
tions of  safety,  a certain  number  of  men  remaining  to  protect 
them.  The  rest  hasten  off  to  the  appointed  meeting-place. 
Once  there,  a war-chief  is  chosen,  and  then  the  plan  of  campaign 
is  agreed  upon. 

Many  people  imagine  that  a barbarous  race  such  as  this  must 
act  in  war  like  a disorganized  mob,  every  man  fighting  for  himself, 
but  the  truth  is  that  they  work  on  carefully-planned  lines.  The 
first  step  taken  is  to  establish  an  excellent  intelligence  depart- 
ment. Their  best  men  are  sent  out  as  spies,  with  the  object  of 
getting  as  close  as  possible  to  the  enemy.  At  stated  intervals 
messengers  are  posted,  and  through  them  communication  is  kept 
up  between  the  spies  and  headquarters.  When  the  favourable 
moment  for  attack  has  arrived,  the  men,  divided  into  bands,  are 
instructed  to  advance  upon  the  enemy  from  certain  positions. 
A supporting  force  is  arranged  for,  and  ambuscades  are  planned. 
The  forces  advance  under  cover  of  night,  and  the  attack  is 
invai'iably  made  at  about  the  rising  of  the  morning  star,  an 

107 


WAR 


hour  or  so  before  dawn.  In  case  of  defeat  a rallying-point  is 
fixed  upon,  but  should  victory  result,  every  man  has  his  duty 
prearranged.  Some  guard  the  captives,  others  drive  off  the 
flocks,  some  attend  to  the  plunder,  while  others  are  deputed  to 
bury  the  dead  and  to  care  for  the  wounded. 

The  Indians,  in  their  wars,  exercise  the  greatest  prudence,  and 
never  expose  themselves  in  large  numbers  to  be  shot  at.  They 
are  great  strategists,  and  take  every  advantage  of  cover,  a 
practice  to  which  their  hunting  life  so  well  accustoms  them.  As 
they  procure  their  food  as  best  they  can,  obtaining  loots  from 
the  forests,  robbing  gardens,  and  hunting  what  game  they  can 
find  en  route,  they  naturally  form  a very  mobile  force.  Every 
man  is  supposed  to  look  after  himself ; he  knows  the  country  as 
well  by  night  as  by  day,  and  is  therefore  a complete  unit  in 
himself. 

The  Indians  rarely  fight  in  a body,  as  their  one  object  is  to 
overthrow  their  enemy  with  as  little  loss  of  life  to  themselves  as 
possible.  This  method  makes  it  extremely  difficult  for  trained 
troops  to  fight  successfully  against  them.  Disciplined  soldiers 
are  dependent  upon  each  other,  and  of  necessity  are  compelled 
to  form  camps,  and  keep  more  or  less  together.  They  rarely 
succeed  in  surrounding  a body  of  Indians,  or  in  forcing  them 
into  the  open,  whereas  the  Indian  sniper  with  his  bow  and 
arrow  gains  a decided  advantage  in  spite  of  the  inferiority  of 
his  weapons.  His  arrow  makes  no  noise,  and  he  is  thus  able  to 
pick  off  sentinels  without  alarming  the  enemy’s  outposts,  and  as 
in  such  a country  as  this  the  invading  force  has  to  pasture  its 
horses,  the  Indian  frequently  succeeds  in  capturing,  or  at  least 
stampeding  them. 

When  attacking  an  Indian  village,  it  is  their  custom  first  to 
discharge  a flight  or  two  of  arrows,  and  then  rush  in  with  their 
clubs.  They  kill  all  grown  men  and  women  who  do  not  succeed 
in  escaping,  and  spare  only  the  younger  women  and  children. 
This  is  done  for  obvious  reasons.  The  younger  women  they 
marry,  and  all  soon  settle  down  to  the  care  of  their  families. 
The  children  readily  amalgamate  with  the  tribe,  the  more  so  as 
captives  are  generally  well  treated,  and  admitted  to  equal 

]08 


WAR 


privileges  with  their  conquerors.  With  the  older  people,  how- 
ever, the  hostile  feeling  never  dies  out ; they  are  constantly 
seeking  to  escape,  and  were  they  to  save  any  number  of  grown 
men,  they  would  revolt  upon  any  favourable  opportunity. 
Wounded  men  receive  no  quarter,  but  are  killed  on  the  spot,  as 
the  Indian  asserts  that,  if  spared,  they  would  take  the  first 
opportunity  to  revenge  themselves. 

The  reasons  given  for  invariably  selecting  the  hour  before 
dawn  for  making  the  attack  are,  that  the  enemy,  if  unaware  of 
the  presence  of  an  attacking  force,  sleep  most  heavily  at  that 
hour,  and  that  the  few  who  might  happen  to  be  awake,  do  not 
move  far  from  the  village  fires  owing  to  the  chill  of  the  morning. 

An  account  given  me  by  an  Indian  of  an  attack  upon  a 
Kisapang  village  during  the  war  already  referred  to  is  interest- 
ing, as  it  describes  their  tactics.  The  village  in  question  was 
situated  on  the  southern  side  of  a large  forest.  To  the  east  and 
south  flowed  a sluggish  swamp  stream,  and  on  the  western  bank 
nearest  to  the  village  there  were  some  dug-out  canoes,  used  by 
the  Kisapang  for  crossing.  To  the  south-west  lay  a stretch  of 
open  country  covered  with  ant-hills,  and  to  the  north-west  a 
number  of  small  woods,  with  spaces  between,  leading  out  into 
the  open  country  beyond. 

The  attacking  force,  having  been  previously  informed  of  the 
location  and  surroundings  of  the  village  by  the  spies,  advanced 
under  cover  of  night  and  took  up  the  following  positions.  The 
main  body  occupied  the  spaces  on  the  north-west,  while  a reserve 
force  remained  some  distance  in  the  rear.  In  the  open  ant-hill 
plain,  a small  body  of  good  marksmen  were  located,  hiding 
themselves  behind  the  ant-hills,  and  another  body  took  up  a 
position  in  a small  wood  opposite  the  place  where  the  canoes 
lay.  Swimming  across  the  river,  they  brought  them  over  to 
their  own  side.  The  main  body,  when  the  moment  was  con- 
sidered favourable,  made  a rush  upon  the  village,  their  shouts 
being  the  signal  to  the  others.  Those  in  the  ant-hill  plain 
remained  under  cover  in  order  to  cut  off  any  fugitives  who  might 
attempt  to  escape  that  way,  while  half  the  force  on  the  east 
crossed  over  in  the  canoes,  and,  just  as  the  villagers  were  closing 

109 


WAR 

with  the  invaders  from  the  north-west,  rushed  up  and  attacked 
from  behind. 

Taken  unawares,  and  in  the  dim  light,  the  villagers,  after 
fighting  stubbornly  for  a time  in  order  to  cover  the  retreat  of 
their  women  and  children,  who  had  mostly  escaped  into  the 
forest  behind  them,  scattered  in  all  directions.  Some  rushed 
for  the  plain,  and  were  shot  down  by  those  in  hiding  behind  the 
ant-hills  ; the  others  tried  to  escape  by  the  canoes,  but  were 
intercepted  by  the  other  half  of  the  force  left  on  the  east  for 
that  very  purpose. 

Had  the  Lenguas  devoted  less  attention  to  securing  the  few 
women  who  had  not  succeeded  in  escaping,  they  might  have 
been  able  to  overtake  those  who  had  fled  into  the  forest.  As  it 
was,  not  knowing  the  intricate  forest-paths,  it  was  soon  too  late 
for  them  to  pursue  the  enemy  in  that  direction. 

Although  many  of  the  Kisapang  men  succeeded  in  eluding 
their  pursuers,  the  Lenguas,  nevertheless,  with  comparatively 
small  loss  to  themselves,  killed  many  of  the  enemy,  and  captured 
all  their  flocks  and  most  of  their  personal  belongings,  but  the 
booty  in  women  and  children  was  small. 

Sometimes  these  tribal  wars  continue  for  many  months,  the 
belligerents  on  both  sides  allowing  hostilities  to  cease  while  they 
attend  to  planting  their  gardens  and  other  necessary  works.  A 
war  is  no  sooner  over  than  the  vanquished,  gathering  strength, 
seek  to  revenge  themselves,  and  thus  on  the  frontiers  a desultory 
warfare  is  being  continually  carried  on.  The  loss  of  life  in 
these  wars  is  not  nearly  so  great  as  might  be  imagined,  and 
cruelty  is  not  practised  to  anything  like  the  extent  that  is 
generally  believed. 


110 


CHAPTER  XI 


RELIGION 

The  treatment  of  this  subject  is  exceedingly  difficult.  The 
reader  must  understand  that  we  are  dealing  with  the  religion 
and  superstitions  of  a people  who  have  no  written  language,  of 
whose  origin  practically  nothing  definite  is  known,  and  who 
cannot  in  any  way  have  had  their  views  influenced  by  any 
European  or  Asiatic  people.  The  only  possible  contact  that 
they  could  ever  have  had  with  a higher  civilization  that  might 
have  affected  their  religious  ideas  must  have  dated  back  at 
least  four  or  five  centuries,  when  it  is  highly  probable  that  they 
were  either  under  the  influence  of  the  ancient  Peruvian  Empire, 
or  that  they  were  actually  of  Inca  origin. 

Generally  speaking,  these  people,  since  the  discovery  of 
South  America  by  the  Spaniards,  have  remained  unchanged — 
a race  of  savages,  a nomadic  people,  who  have  left  no  permanent 
remains  behind  them,  no  cities,  temples,  or  even  burial  mounds. 

The  popular  opinion  is  that  they  have  no  religious  ideas  at 
all,  that  they  are  as  the  beasts  of  the  field,  without  even  a 
tradition  of  the  Creation  ; that  they  have  no  morality,  and  live 
only  according  to  their  instincts.  Some  people,  animated  no 
doubt  by  the  best  intentions,  are  apt  to  view  with  too  much 
favour  the  nobler  and  better  characteristics  of  heathen  races ; 
others,  with  an  undoubted  bias  against  Christianity,  endeavour 
to  make  out  a good  case  for  heathenism,  in  order  to  depreciate 
the  mighty  and  elevating  power  of  Christianity.  They  pride 
themselves  on  being  broad  and  liberal  minded,  and  assert  that, 
although  Christianity  may  suit  our  particular  race,  other  forms 
of  religion  admirably  suit  the  special  needs  of  various  heathen 


RELIGION 


nations.  My  own  experience  is  that  the  man  who  knows  most 
is  the  most  reluctant  to  make  sweeping  statements. 

The  Indian  is  by  nature  very  reticent,  while  his  general 
character  and  modes  of  thought  differ  widely  from  ours  in 
many  respects.  In  conversation  much  is  only  hinted  at,  and 
not  explicitly  affirmed  or  denied  ; his  tone  and  manner  are 
often  the  only  guides  that  one  has  as  to  the  sincerity  of  his 
statements.  He  is  very  prone  to  acquiescing  in,  or  uttering 
anything  that  he  thinks  will  please  ; he  is  quick  at  perceiving 
what  your  ready-made  opinions  are,  and  sees  no  harm  in  grati- 
fying  you  by  endorsing  them,  however  erroneous  they  may  be. 

It  is  admitted  to  be  very  difficult  really  to  know  the  inmost 
mind  of  a man,  for  man,  wherever  he  is  found,  is  not  generally 
given  to  turning  himself  inside  out  for  his  fellows  to  gaze  at. 
He  will  sometimes  be  frank  and  open  about  himself,  so  far  as  it 
suits  his  purpose,  but  his  deeper  feelings  he  does  not  so  readily 
expose. 

The  Indian,  although  friendly  and  sociable,  does  not  spon- 
taneously give  his  confidence  to  anyone.  Therefore  on  this 
subject  of  religion  I can  only  repeat  what  I have  heard  from 
the  people  at  different  times,  contradictory  as  some  of  it  un- 
doubtedly is,  and  endeavour  as  far  as  possible  to  suggest  the 
probable  connecting-links,  and,  by  comparing  their  statements 
with  facts  and  incidents  in  their  actual  life,  throw  what  light  I 
can  upon  the  religious  tenets  of  this  strange  people. 

The  contents  of  this  and  of  succeeding  chapters  may  be  of 
some  little  value  to  those  who  study  the  primitive  beliefs  of 
man,  and  may  enable  them,  by  comparing  my  statements  with 
the  researches  of  others  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  to  trace 
some  connection  between  them,  though  they  may  also  possibly 
find  some  error  in  the  conclusions  at  which  I have  arrived. 

The  symbolism  with  which  the  Indians’  ideas  of  higher  things 
are  clothed  appears  to  us  strange  and  childish,  having  more  of 
the  nature  of  a fairy-tale  than  anything  else;  but  that  is  just 
because  we  do  not  probe  deep  enough  beneath  the  surface.  We 
ourselves  talk  of  beautiful  harps  and  streets  of  gold,  and  it 
sounds  to  us  very  refined  and  poetic.  In  their  case  the  harps 

112 


RELIGION 


would  be  gourds,  as  representing  their  musical  instruments  ; 
their  streets  of  gold  would  be  paths  without  thorns,  and 
unfrequented  by  treachei’ous  snakes.  In  both  cases  the  idea  is 
to  picture  a state  of  things  vastly  superior  to  anything  on  earth, 
and  the  Indian  mind  accomplishes  this  just  as  fully  as  the 
Christian. 

When  the  Indian  is  questioned  on  any  mythological  subject, 
his  whole  attitude  is  entirely  against  giving  any  clear  exposition 
or  explanation  of  the  theories  which  he  holds.  He  either  avoids 
answering  and  turns  the  question  to  something  else,  or  professes 
complete  ignorance ; at  the  best  he  will  only  make  one  or  two 
admissions.  He  does  not  grasp  our  system  of  question  and 
answer,  and  even  to  the  present  day  this  inability  on  his  part 
is  found  to  be  a great  hindrance  to  educational  work  by  oral 
examination. 

Again,  the  Indian  has  not  been  accustomed  to  think  out  and 
formulate  his  ideas  on  any  subject  in  logical  sequence,  and  he 
has  for  so  long  simply  accepted  these  traditions  as  articles  of 
faith  that  he  has  never  troubled  himself  to  arrive  at  any  solution 
of  the  problem  ; but  when  a probable  solution  is  proposed  to 
him  he  becomes  intensely  interested,  and  employs  his  best 

I reasoning  faculties  in  weighing  the  force  of  the  suggestions 
made  to  him.  While  so  doing,  he  very  often  himself  recalls 
incidents  bearing  on  the  subject  which  he  had  hitherto  over- 
looked. 

A little  instance  will  serve  to  illustrate  this.  The  Indian 
was  acquainted  when  I first  met  him  with  three  distinct  types 
of  men — the  white  man,  the  negro,  and  himself.  The  differences 
of  colour  he  simply  accepted.  When  asked  if  he  could  explain 
why  the  one  race  was  white  and  the  other  brown,  like  themselves, 
he  looked  bewildered,  and  replied  “ Kyahas  !”  as  much  as  to  say, 
“ Who  knows  ? We  have  never  thought  about  it.”  But  when 
I drew  attention  to  the  contrast  between  my  sunburnt  face  and 
neck  (almost  exactly  the  colour  of  their  own  skin),  and  the 
whiteness  of  my  chest,  reminding  them  that  when  I first  arrived 
among  them  my  face  and  neck  had  not  their  present  dark  hue, 
and  when  I explained  to  them  that  the  change  was  entirely 


RELIGION 

owing  to  the  action  of  the  powerful  sun,  they  at  once  grasped 
the  solution. 

Some  may  I’emark  that  Indians  in  the  colder  parts  of  the 
New  World  have  the  same  tinge  of  colour,  and  ask  why  the  sun 
should  produce  a black  hue  in  some  cases  and  a yellow  tinge  in 
others.  I could  not  go  into  the  full  explanation  of  this  question 
with  the  Indian ; I was  only  teaching  him  to  draw  conclusions 
from  given  data.  Essentially  I was  correct  in  attributing  the 
above  change  to  the  effect  of  the  sun.  It  is  an  established  fact 
that  the  dampness  or  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  through  which 
the  light  passes  materially  alters  the  hue.  Any  who  are 
interested  in  this  subject  must  study  the  question  elsewhere, 
but  it  was  sufficient  for  my  purpose  that  I succeeded  in  causing 
the  Indian  to  think. 

Not  only  is  the  Indian  reticent,  but  he  will  only  communicate 
with  the  few  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  win  his  entire  con- 
fidence. I think  I may  safely  say  that  I have  gained  that 
confidence  to  a very  great  extent ; and,  furthermore,  I had  this 
advantage — that,  being  the  first  white  man  to  live  with  them, 
and  that,  too,  before  the  ideas  of  Christianity  had  been  sprung 
upon  them,  I was  in  a position  to  obtain  more  information  than 
others.  The  fact  also  of  their  regarding  me  in  the  early  years 
as  one  who  for  some  reason  had  cast  off  his  own  people,  and 
desired  to  be  incorporated  among  them,  made  them  the  more 
anxious  and  willing  to  instruct  me  in  their  mysteries,  such  as 
they  were.  They  looked  upon  me  as  a witch-doctor  of  some 
distant  tribe,  who  knew  many  things  they  did  not,  but  who  at 
the  same  time  was  willing  to  learn  from  them,  and  thoroughly 
appreciated  and  respected  their  theories. 

Their  whole  mythology  is  founded  upon  their  idea  of  the 
Creation,  of  which  we  know  only  the  bare  outlines.  The  Creator 
of  all  things,  spiritual  and  material,  is  symbolized  by  a beetle. 
It  seems  that  the  Indian  idea  is  that  the  material  universe  was 
first  made.  The  Creator,  in  the  guise  of  the  beetle,  then  sent 
forth  from  its  hole  in  the  earth  a race  of  powerful  beings — 
according  to  many  in  an  embodied  state — who  for  a time  appear 
to  have  ruled  the  universe. 


114 


RELIGION 


Afterwards  the  beetle  formed  man  and  woman  from  the  clay 
which  it  threw  up  from  its  hole.  These  were  sent  forth  on  the 
earth,  joined  together  like  the  Siamese  twins.  They  met  with 
persecution  from  their  powerful  predecessors,  and  accordingly 
appealed  to  the  creating  beetle  to  free  them  from  their  dis- 
advantageous formation.  He  therefore  separated  them,  and 
gave  them  power  to  propagate  their  species,  so  that  they  might 
become  numerous  enough  to  withstand  their  enemies.  It  then 
appears  that  some  time  after  this,  or  at  this  time,  the  powerful 
beings  first  created  became  disembodied,  as  they  never  appear 
again  in  the  tradition  of  the  Indians  in  material  form.  The 
beetle  then  ceased  to  take  any  active  part  or  interest  in  the 
governance  of  the  world,  but  committed  its  fortunes  to  these 
two  races,  which  have  been  antagonistic  ever  since. 

It  is  rather  remarkable,  when  we  consider  that  they  have  no 
written  records,  and  no  system  of  cax-efully  transmitted  tradi- 
tion, that  they  should  retain  a belief  in  an  original  Creator, 
in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  the  existence  of  these 
powerful  and  numerous  evil  personifications,  which  they  call 
Idlyikhama. 

That  the  Indian  should  regard  the  beetle  as  the  symbol  of 
creative  power  is,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable  feature  in  their 
mythology,  for  it  closely  resembles  the  Egyptian  Scarabaeus  and 
the  ideas  associated  with  it.  To  explain  this  statement,  I will 
quote  Smith’s  “Dictionary  of  the  Bible”:  “Out  of  the  mud 
which  the  Nile  left  in  its  flooding  men  saw  myriad  forms  of  life 
issue.  That  of  the  Scarabaeus  was  the  most  conspicuous.  It 
seemed  to  them  self-generated,  called  into  being  by  the  light, 
the  child  only  of  the  Sun.  It  became  at  once  the  emblem 
of  Ra,  the  Sun,  and  its  creative  power  (Clem.  Alex. ; Euseb.  ; 
Brugsch.,  ‘Liber  Metempsychoseos  Wilkinson,  ‘Ancient 
Egyptians  ’).  It  also  came  out  of  the  dark  earth  after  the  flood 
of  waters,  and  was  therefore  the  symbol  of  life  rising  out  of 
death  in  new  forms  (Brugsch.,  ‘ ^Egypt.  Alterth.’).  So  it  was 
that,  not  in  Egypt  only,  but  in  Etruria  and  Syria  and  other 
countries,  the  same  strange  emblems  appeared  (Dennis,  ‘ Cities 
and  Sepulchres  of  Etruria’;  Layard,  ‘Nineveh’)  and  that 

115 


RELIGION 


semi-Christian  Scarabaei  are  found  with  the  sacred  words  Jao, 
Sabaoth,  or  the  names  of  angels  engraved  on  them  (Bellerman). 
In  older  Egypt  it  was,  at  any  rate,  connected  with  the  thought 
of  Divine  illumination,  found  in  frequent  union  with  the  sym- 
bolic eye,  the  emblem  of  the  providence  of  God.”  Furthermore, 
representations  of  the  beetle,  and  figures  of  kilyikharna  asso- 
ciated with  it,  are  the  most  common  mythological  drawings 
found  on  Lengua  gourds,  the  articles  which  they  find  most 
convenient  for  engraving  on,  which  are  also  the  only  musical 
instrument  used  in  any  of  their  ceremonies. 

The  Indian’s  idea,  therefore,  is  briefly  this — that  there  was  an 
original  P'irst  Cause,  a Creator  who  planned  and  made  every- 
thing, but  that  He  now  takes  no  part  in  the  governance  of  the 
universe,  and,  therefore,  neither  rewards  nor  punishes. 

The  Indian  appears  to  be  a believer  in  simple  and  natural  laws 
only.  He  believes  that  a man  prospers  and  is  happy  in  this  life 
and  the  next  in  so  far  as  he  abides  by  these  natural  laws,  and 
that  he  suffers  and  is  punished  when  he  infringes  them.  To  a 
certain  extent  this  is  very  true — heaven  and  hell  are  of  man’s 
own  making.  The  Indian,  of  course,  has  no  idea  of  a fall  from 
primitive  purity  or  of  an  atonement  for  sin — that  is,  an  atone- 
ment made  by  some  perfect  being  on  behalf  of  the  imperfect — 
and  no  idea  of  a resurrection  of  the  body. 

He  regards  the  soul  as  immortal ; in  fact,  he  cannot  conceive 
the  possibility  of  man’s  personality  ceasing  to  exist.  The  after- 
life is  to  him  simply  a continuation  of  the  present,  only  in  a 
disembodied  condition.  He  does  not  regard  the  future  life  as 
a greater,  happier,  and  better  existence,  nor  has  he  any  know- 
ledge of  a future  state  of  punishment  following  on  an  evil  life 
led  in  the  body.  He  regards  the  body  as  the  only  means  by 
which  the  soul  can  really  enjoy  itself,  and  he  has  little,  if  any, 
idea  of  intellectual  or  spiritual  enjoyment.  He  accordingly 
does  not  view  the  life  after  death  with  any  real  pleasure,  for  to 
him  in  the  disembodied  state  life  will  be  dull  and  void.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  as  suffering  to  the  Indian  means  practically 
only  physical  suffering,  so  in  the  after-life,  although  he  will  be 
debarred  from  pleasure,  yet  he  will  also  escape  from  much,  if 

116 


RELIGION 

not  all,  of  the  pain,  sorrow,  and  trouble  which  attend  him  in  the 
present. 

He  seems,  however,  to  believe  that  pleasure  and  pain  do  exist 
to  some  small  extent  in  the  hereafter  ; but  the  pleasure  amounts 
to  so  little  that  the  future  life  has  no  attraction  for  him,  and 
rather  repels  him.  The  one  thing  to  be  coveted  is  life ; the  one  * 
thing  to  be  feared,  death. 

Holding  as  he  does  that  the  Creator  takes  no  interest  in  the 
affairs  of  man,  he  naturally  renders  him  no  worship ; in  fact,  he 
worships  nothing,  and  his  efforts  are  confined  to  avoiding  the 
consequences  of  evil-doing  on  earth  and  to  warding  off  the 
malignant  kilyiJchama,  who,  he  holds,  are  continually  seeking  to 
mar  his  happiness. 

The  Indian,  like  men  of  other  races,  possesses  the  ordinary 
natural  instincts — love  for  his  friends,  parents  and  children, 
sympathy  with  others  in  distress  and  in  trouble,  and  the  like. 
Beyond  this,  his  object  in  life  is  to  gratify  his  desires  as  far  as 
possible  without  getting  himself  into  trouble. 


SDHIN  PIPE  OF  CARVED  WOOD. 


117 


CHAPTER  XII 
SHADE-LAND 

In  order  the  more  effectively  to  deal  with  this  subject,  I shall 
treat  it  under  the  three  following  divisions : The  kilyikhama ; 
the  aphangak,  or  departed  souls  of  men  ; and  the  departed 
souls  of  the  lower  creation. 

The  kilyikhama  are  confined  to  no  particular  place. 
Time  and  distance  do  not  seem  to  affect  them  in  the  least. 
They  are  held  in  great  awe  by  the  Indian,  and  whithersoever  he 
turns,  whether  by  day  or  night,  but  particularly  at  night,  he  is 
subject  to  their  malign  influences.  They  are  as  varied  in  their 
characteristics  as  the  races  of  men.  There  is  one  which  frequents 
the  swamps,  rivers,  and  lakes,  although  he  is  not  confined  to 
them  only.  This  is  a white  kilyikhama , and  is  supposed  to 
be  seen  sailing  over  the  waters.  He  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  malignant  known  to  the  people,  and  at  night  he  can  be 
heard  whistling  shrilly  in  his  little  craft  among  the  reeds.  In 
order  to  protect  themselves  against  this  water-spirit,  the  Indians 
wear  a special  head-dress  made  from  the  feathers  of  a rare  bird, 
and  this  they  prize  very  highly  as  an  all-powerful  charm.  It  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  costly  ornament  that  they  possess,  for  even 
when  they  barter  it  among  themselves  it  has  a considerable 
value,  and  a European  could  buy  practically  the  whole 
ornamental  outfit  of  an  Indian  for  less  than  he  would  have  to 
give  for  this  one  charm.  I have  known  them  give  the  equivalent 
of  ten  Paraguayan  dollars  for  one,  at  that  time  equal  to  quite  10s. 

Another  kilyikhama  is  supposed  to  be  in  appearance  like 
a boy  of  about  twelve  years  of  age,  with  two  bright  shining 

118 


SHADE-LAND 


lights  at  each  side  of  his  head.  He  appears  to  be  regarded  by 
them  more  with  respectful  awe  than  with  actual  dread. 

There  is  a thieving  kilyikhama  for  whom  they  exhibit 
almost  feelings  of  contempt ; and  when  they  lose  anything, 
even  through  their  own  carelessness,  they  attribute  the  loss  to 
him.  There  is  one  whose  help  they  invoke  to  assist  them  in 
their  hunting,  and  another  who  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  render 
them  help  in  gardening,  especially  in  the  sowing  of  pumpkins. 
I might  go  on  giving  a long  list  of  the  various  kilyikharna 
in  which  they  believe,  but  I must  conclude  by  mentioning  only 
the  greatest  and  most  terrible  of  all.  He  is  met  with  chiefly  in 
the  vicinity  of  forests,  and  is  believed  to  be  of  immense  height, 
extremely  thin,  and  with  eyes  flaming  like  balls  of  fire.  To 
meet  him  is  supposed  to  herald  instant  death. 

Although  all  Indians  believe  firmly  in  the  existence  of  these 
spirits,  and  although  they  hold  that  they  can  be  seen  by  man, 
yet  I have  never  met  an  Indian  who,  on  being  closely  questioned, 
has  seriously  professed  to  have  seen  one.  But  it  is  quite  common 
to  hear  them  assert  that  they  have  heard  them,  and  felt  that 
they  were  near.  They  live  in  constant  dread  of  these  super- 
natural beings,  and  if  nothing  else  contributed  to  make  their 
life  miserable,  this  ever-present  dread  of  the  kilyikhama 
would  be  in  itself  quite  sufficient  to  rob  it  of  most  of  its  joy. 
Some  of  these  spirits,  however,  are  believed  to  work  hand  in 
hand  with  the  witch-doctors,  who  at  least  frequently  assert  that 
among  the  kilyikhama  they  have  some  who  render  them  aid  in 
their  sorceries. 

The  Indian’s  theory  that  the  kilyikhama  were  at  one  time 
embodied  seems  to  be  supported  by  the  belief  that  their  great 
desire  is  to  gain  possession  of  a human  body,  whether  by  direct 
entrance  or  during  sleep,  by  taking  the  place  of  the  soul,  which 
is  supposed  to  wander  from  the  body  when  a man  dreams. 

That  these  kilyikhama  are  not  the  deified  souls  of  men 
seems  clear  from  the  fact  that  there  is  no  veneration  shown 
them,  but  whether  the  Indian  idea  was  originally  that  they  were 
a distinct  spiritual  creation,  or  simply  the  souls  of  a prehistoric 
race,  is  not  clear.  The  Creation  story  seems  to  suggest  that 

119 


SHADE-LAND 


they  were  altogether  a distinct  species  from  man,  and  there  is 
no  trace  in  Indian  mythology  of  these  kilyikhama  having  a 
special  country,  or  living  in  tribes  or  clans,  as  their  theories 
with  regard  to  the  soul  of  man  imply. 

We  have  thought  it  right  to  accept  partially  their  belief  in 
the  kilyikhama  as  corresponding  in  a slight  degree  with 
our  belief  in  fallen  angels  ; in  fact,  we  have  adopted  the  word 
kilyikhama  as  a name  for  them. 

The  unseen  world  in  its  relation  to  man  is  naturally  much 
more  clearly  defined  by  the  Indian.  He  holds  that  the  aphani- 
gak  or  departed  souls  of  men  in  the  shade  world  ( pischischi , 
shadows),  merely  continue  their  present  life,  only  of  course  in  a 
disembodied  state.  The  souls  of  the  departed  are  supposed,  in 
the  ethereal  state,  to  correspond  exactly  in  form  and  character- 
istics with  the  bodies  they  have  left.  A tall  man  and  a short 
man  remain  tall  and  short  as  spirits;  a deformed  man  remains 
deformed.  A kindly-natured  man  continues  so  in  shade-land. 
A witch-doctor,  or  a great  Chief,  feared  and  respected  in  the 
body,  is  feared  and  respected  in  the  spirit-world.  Those  who 
were  related  in  this  world  associate  with  each  other  in  the  next. 
Departed  spirits  continue  the  same  tribal  and  clan  life  as  when 
in  the  body.  The  spirit  of  a child  remains  a child  and  does  not 
develop,  and  for  this  reason  is  not  feared.  Infanticide  is  not 
regarded  as  murder  in  the  same  degree  as  the  murder  of  an 
adult.  No  punishment  follows  the  murderer  of  an  infant,  nor 
is  its  murder  attended  by  the  ordinary  superstitious  fears.  A 
murderer — that  is,  according  to  the  Indian  idea,  a man  who  kills 
one  of  his  own  tribe — is  not  only  executed  for  the  crime,  but  his 
body  is  burnt,  and  the  ashes  scattered  to  the  four  winds.  The 
Indian  believes  that  after  such  treatment  his  spirit  cannot  take 
human  form,  and  remains  in  the  after-world  shapeless  and 
unrecognizable,  and  therefore  unable  to  mingle  with  its  kindred 
spirits,  or  to  enjoy  such  social  intercourse  as  exists. 

The  aphangak  is  supposed  to  hunt,  travel,  garden,  and 
carry  on  more  or  less  his  old  life,  but  of  course  in  spirit  form, 
and  pursuing  only  spiritual  essences.  The  spirits  of  the  dead 
appear  to  take  no  interest  in  the  living,  nor,  beyond  causing 

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SHADE-LAND 


uncanny  feelings  when  supposed  to  be  hovering  about,  do  they 
seem  in  the  least  to  influence  those  left  behind.  Their  very 
names  are  not  mentioned,  and  every  effort  is  made  by  the  living 
to  forget  them. 

While  the  kilyikhama  appear  to  be  continually  endeavour- 
ing in  some  form  or  other,  such  as  that  of  an  insect  or  some 
small  animal,  to  obtain  possession  of  a body,  the  aphangak, 
on  the  contrary,  have  never  been  supposed  to  attempt  to  enter 
the  bodies  of  the  living,  with  the  exception  that  an  indistinct 
idea  seems  to  prevail  that  they  sometimes  seek  reincarnation 
as  a new-born  child.  This  theory,  however,  is  by  no  means 
analogous  to  that  of  the  transmigration  of  the  soul,  of  which  the 
Indian  knows  nothing,  but  presupposes  an  occasional  attempt, 
sometimes  successful,  to  oust  the  spirit  that  would  naturally 
belong  to  the  child  at  birth. 

An  Indian  professes  to  be  able  to  recognize  an  aphangak , 
because  it  retains  the  same  appearance  as  it  had  when  in  the 
body.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  Indian’s  mind  is 
not  trained  to  think  out  and  formulate  his  theories  in  methodical 
fashion.  His  theories  can  only  be  deduced  by  carefully  sifting 
and  examining  a chaotic  mass  of  ideas  and  traditions,  and  by 
comparing  them  with  native  customs  and  superstitions. 

For  example,  an  Indian  one  day  informed  me  that  he  had 
heard  an  aphangak  coughing  as  he  passed  by  a little  wood  in  the 
dark.  Observe  that  he  did  not  say  he  had  seen,  but  that  he  had 
heard  the  spirit.  Being  always  on  the  alert  for  any  possible 
opportunity  of  studying  the  native  beliefs,  I asked  him  if  the 
spirit  was  a short  one.  It  may  seem  strange  that  I should  have 
questioned  him  about  its  appearance  when  he  distinctly  said  he 
had  only  heard  it,  but  in  order  to  elicit  information  from  an 
Indian,  the  questioner  must  understand  his  mind  and  habit. 

His  reply  was  that  it  was  tall.  “ A young  one  ?”  I suggested. 
“ No,  old,”  he  replied.  Nothing  more  was  said,  but  I under- 
stood at  once  that  the  spirit  he  professed  to  have  heard  was 
that  of  a man,  known  to  us  both,  who  had  recently  died.  Had 
I asked  him  straight  out  if  he  had  seen  it,  he  would  have 
answered  truthfully,  “ No,”  and  I should  have  obtained  no 

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SHADE-LAND 


further  information.  Had  I said,  “ Was  it  so-and-so  ?”  he 
would  have  replied,  “ I don’t  know.”  My  policy  was  to  find 
out  what  was  passing  through  his  mind  at  the  time.  I had  a 
very  shrewd  suspicion  what  it  was,  but  I wanted  to  see  if  he 
would  confirm  my  impression.  I knew  that  the  deceased  was  a 
tall  old  man,  but  if  I had  asked  “ Was  he  tall  and  old  ?”  I 
should  have  received  the  same  reply,  “ I don’t  know.”  That 
would  have  meant  coming  too  directly  to  the  point  for  an 
Indian ; but  when  I asked  whether  the  spirit  was  short  and 
young,  he  concluded  that  I was  thinking  of  someone  else,  and 
his  natural  turn  of  mind,  imagining  that  I was  in  error,  forced 
him  to  contradict  me.  In  this  way  I discovered  what  was  in 
his  mind. 

If  an  Indian  kills  a foreigner  or  one  of  another  distinct  tribe, 
he  is  not  regarded  as  a murderer,  and  he  has  no  fear  at  all  of 
the  spirit  of  his  victim,  should  they  meet  in  the  after-life;  the 
reason  given  being  that  he  would  then  be  in  the  midst  of  his 
own  people,  and  would  thus  have  no  more  reason  to  fear  that 
spirit  than  when  in  the  body.  This  tallies  with  the  Indian’s 
idea  that  the  clan  and  tribal  life  continue  after  death. 

The  soul  on  leaving  the  body  is  supposed  to  be  astonished, 
and  not  to  x-ealize  quite  what  has  happened.  It  hovers  about 
the  village  and  neighbourhood  for  a time,  generally  estimated 
at  one  month,  after  which  period  the  mourning  feast  takes 
place.  The  natives  then  suppose  themselves  to  be  no  longer 
haunted  by  the  deceased’s  spirit,  which  they  imagine  to  have 
left  the  neighbourhood  for  good  and  to  have  passed  to  the 
realms  of  the  dead.  They  should  then  cease  to  be  haunted  by 
it,  but  as  many  have  only  a very  vague  belief  in  this  theoi’y, 
anything  which  recalls  the  departed  to  their  memory  produces 
(under  certain  cii’cumstances)  a fear  of  its  ghost,  and  therefore 
they  may  continue  to  have  uncanny  feelings  for  a long  time 
afterwards. 

The  personal  belongings  and  animals  of  the  deceased  are 
desti’oyed  at  his  death,  evidently  with  the  idea  that  they  may 
prove  useful  to  him  in  the  after-life.  The  l’eason  given  by  the 
Indian  for  doing  this  is  that  the  ghost  would  otherwise  haunt 

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SHADE-LAND 

the  relatives.  Now,  if  the  ghost  had  no  interest  in  these  things, 
why  should  it  do  so  ? 

An  experience  which  I had  at  Riacho  Fernandez  will  illustrate 
their  idea  that  the  dead  hover  about  for  a time  after  dissolution. 
I was  staying  one  night  in  an  abandoned  hut  with  five  Indian 
companions,  x-emote  from  any  neighbours.  In  the  middle  of  the 
night  they  awakened  me,  and  in  accents  of  fear  called  my  atten- 
tion to  a noise  outside.  The  fire  at  which  we  had  cooked  our 
meal  had  been  made  some  twenty  feet  or  so  from  the  hut  in 
which  we  wei'e  sleeping,  but  it  had  practically  gone  out  befoi’e 
we  retired,  and  must  by  this  time  have  been  quite  dead.  The 
night  was  pitch  dark  and  there  was  no  wind  to  speak  of,  yet  I 
distinctly  heard  the  familiar  sound  as  of  an  Indian  with  a palm- 
leaf  fan  blowing  up  the  embers  of  a fire.  It  seemed  so  real 
and  sounded  so  much  as  though  someone  had  ari’ived,  and  was 
endeavouring  to  l’evive  the  fme,  that  I was  on  the  point  of  going 
out  to  see  what  it  was,  when  the  Indians  pulled  me  back,  and 
in  awestruck  whispers  told  me  that  it  was  an  aphangak.  A 
few  days  previously  I had  brought  up  in  my  canoe  with  these 
same  men  the  greater  pai’t  of  the  skeleton  of  an  Indian  who  had 
been  killed  lower  down  the  river  by  some  of  the  Paraguayan 
soldiers.  He  had  escaped,  mortally  wounded,  and  had  evidently 
died  unattended  in  the  place  where  I found  his  bones.  These  I 
had  buried  under  a castor-oil  tree  about  one  hundred  yards  from 
the  hut  in  which  we  were  camping,  and  the  Indians  evidently 
associated  the  blowing  up  of  the  fire  with  his  ghost.  They  were 
too  teri’ified  for  me  to  get  any  information  from  them  that 
night.  After  conversing  with  them  for  a short  time  in  whispers, 
I told  them  that  I was  going  out  to  satisfy  myself,  as  the  sound 
of  the  fanning  still  continued,  and,  in  spite  of  their  remonsti-ances, 
I did  so.  Finding  nothing  except  that  the  fire  was  quite  dead, 
I returned  and  slept  till  morning.  My  companions,  however, 
huddled  together,  spent,  I am  afraid,  a miserable  night. 

On  the  morrow  I made  further  investigation  into  the  cause 
of  the  previous  night’s  alarms,  and  the  only  possible  solution  I 
can  give  is  that  it  may  have  been  caused  by  the  nibbing  together 
of  two  boughs.  But  during  the  day  I elicited  much  interesting 

123 


SHADE-LAND 


information  from  the  Indians,  which  I was  afterwards  enabled 
to  verify.  The  souls  of  the  departed  are  supposed  frequently 
to  return  to  the  village  where  their  death  has  occurred.  This 
appears  to  take  place  invariably  towards  early  morning,  and  the 
soul,  feeling  chilly,  endeavours  to  resuscitate  the  embers  of  a 
fire,  should  it  find  one.  But  in  the  event  of  the  fire  being  quite 
dead,  it  becomes  greatly  enraged,  and  scatters  the  ashes  in  all 
directions ; and  should  any  unwary  Indian  afterwards  tread 
upon  them,  dire  calamity  would  follow.  Hence  the  custom  of 
burying  the  ashes  (see  Chapter  XVI.).  But  this  appears  to  follow 
only  if  the  fire  happens  to  be  one  belonging  to  the  spirit’s  im- 
mediate connections.  They  seem  to  recognize  that  they  have 
no  cause  for  resentment  should  the  fire  belong  to  others. 

That  the  Indian  in  his  most  advanced  state  believes  that  the 
spirit  eventually  seeks  to  consort  with  the  main  body  of  its 
people  who  have  departed  this  life  is  made  clear  from  the  follow- 
ing incident : I was  for  many  years  regarded  by  the  people  as  a 
powerful  witch-doctor,  and  I have  been  informed  by  them  that 
at  one  time  they  seriously  came  to  the  conclusion  that  my 
presence  among  them  was  no  longer  desirable.  They  therefore 
concocted  the  following  plan,  which,  fortunately  for  me,  they 
did  not  carry  out,  probably  because  they  felt  doubtful  of  their 
ability  to  do  so  successfully.  They  intended  to  surround  my 
hut  with  dry  brushwood  after  they  were  sure  that  I was  asleep. 
At  a given  moment  they  were  to  fire  this  fuel,  and  then,  know- 
ing that  I should  be  blinded  by  the  smoke  and  confused  by  the 
sudden  danger,  they  intended  to  kill  me  as  I rushed  from  the 
flames.  But  before  carrying  out  this  part  of  the  scheme,  their 
plan  was  to  build  little  huts  at  suitable  distances  along  the 
route  I usually  took  to  the  River  Paraguay  in  the  east.  They 
knew  that  when  travelling  I always  made  them  prepare  a rough 
shelter  to  protect  me  from  the  sun  and  weather,  whenever  time 
permitted.  They  concluded  that  my  spirit,  wandering  about 
the  neighbourhood,  would  be  attracted  by  these  huts,  and  thus 
be  induced  to  take  the  road  to  the  east,  their  great  desire  being 
that  my  spirit  should  leave  their  country.  They  believed  that 
my  own  country  was  in  the  east,  and  for  this  reason  they 

124 


SHADE-LAND 

selected  this  route.  Had  they  thought  I had  come  originally 
from  any  other  quarter,  they  would  have  prepared  the  road 
accordingly.  This  proves  that  they  thought  that  my  deceased 
ancestors  were  located  in  the  east. 

It  is  significant  that  after  the  Indians  had  become  attached 
to  me,  and  had  received  me  as  one  of  their  own  people,  they 
did  not  even  suggest  trying  to  entice  my  spirit  to  leave  their 
country.  I refer  to  the  time  when  I lay  in  a dying  condition, 
as  I supposed,  in  one  of  their  villages,  after  the  attempt  to 
murder  me  (see  Chapter  XXVI.). 

They  have  a similar  idea  with  regard  to  the  souls  of  the 
Paraguayan  Guarani  Indians,  who,  according  to  tradition, 
entered  Paraguay  from  Brazil,  at  some  remote  period.  The 
Chaco  Indians  believe  that  the  souls  of  these  Guaranis  retire  to 
the  forest  country  around  the  great  Falls  of  La  Guayra  on  the 
Alto  Parana,  in  Brazil,  seeking  to  consort  with  the  souls  of  their 
ancestors. 

Speaking  generally,  three  ideas  seem  to  prevail  regarding  the 
future  abode  of  the  soul.  The  lower  type  of  Indian  holds  that 
the  aphangak  continues  to  wander  disconsolately  about  the 
country  in  company  with  its  kindred  spirits,  while  the  more  in- 
telligent are  of  opinion  that  it  moves  over  to  the  west,  to  the  cities 
of  the  dead,  already  referred  to  in  dealing  with  their  origin.  A 
few,  however,  hold  a view  similar  to  that  prevailing  among  the 
Southern  tribes — namely,  that  the  dead  inhabit  a world  beneath 
the  earth. 

The  lower  creation,  with  the  exception  of  fish  and  serpents, 
are  supposed  to  share  immortality  with  men.  Birds,  cattle,  and 
the  carnivora,  especially  of  the  leading  types,  figure  largely  in 
their  beliefs  of  the  shade-world,  as  also  the  dog,  jaguar,  horse, 
ostrich,  and  the  thunder-bird. 

An  Indian,  in  his  primitive  and  heathen  condition,  will  not  on 
any  account  kill  either  his  dog  or  his  horse,  even  if  from  any 
cause  they  are  in  such  a condition  that  it  would  be  a merciful 
act  to  do  so ; and  the  only  time  when  he  will  deprive  them  of 
life  is  after  the  death  of  the  owner. 

The  chase  of  the  ostrich  is  one  of  their  favourite  pursuits, 

125 


SHADE-LAND 


but  they  rub  their  arrow-points  with  a particular  herb  before 
hunting  it,  either  to  propitiate  the  spirit  of  the  bird,  or  to  give 
them  success  in  shooting  it ; and  when  they  are  bringing  the 
carcass  home  they  take  the  precaution  to  pluck  feathers  from  its 
breast  as  they  go  along,  and  at  certain  points  throw  them  aside 
from  the  path,  in  order  to  deceive  the  spirit  of  the  ostrich,  which 
they  believe  pursues  the  body  after  its  first  consternation  has 
passed.  Finding  the  feathers  on  the  wayside,  it  stops  to  con- 
sider whether  that  is  all  of  it  or  not.  Then  after  a zigzag 
course,  as  is  its  custom,  it  finds  the  next  bunch  of  feathers,  and 
again  pauses  to  consider.  By  these  delays  the  hunter  is  enabled 
to  reach  the  village  without  being  overtaken  by  the  spirit,  and, 
being  a timid  bird,  it  is  afraid  to  enter. 

On  one  occasion  I was  compelled  to  shoot  a chestnut  horse  of 
mine,  although  the  Indians  strongly  remonstrated.  As  part  of 
the  hide  was  badly  wanted  for  the  repair  of  my  saddle,  I was 
about  to  set  off  in  the  moonlight  to  skin  it,  when  some  of  the 
old  women  tried  to  deter  me,  assuring  me  that  the  spirit  of  the 
horse  would  probably  meet  me  on  the  way  and  kick  me  to  death. 

These  few  observations  will  illustrate  clearly  the  Indian’s 
belief  in  the  after-existence  of  most  of  the  leading  species  of  the 
lower  creation. 

The  three  views  as  to  the  location  of  the  departed,  together 
with  the  rest  of  their  mythological  beliefs,  prove  that  the  Indian 
does  think  and  speculate  on  the  question  of  the  future  life. 
There  is  nothing  that  he  is  more  interested  in  than  the  subject 
of  spiritual  beings  and  the  problematic  state  of  the  dead. 

I have  been  able  to  gather  only  this  bare  and  fragmentary 
knowledge  of  their  mythology,  but  that  it  really  represents 
their  theory  of  the  spirit-world  I have  every  reason  to  believe. 
At  the  same  time  I feel  sure  that  there  are  many  more  beliefs 
held  by  them,  which  remain  undiscovered. 


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CHAPTER  XIII 

DREAMS 


Dreams  play  a very  important  part  in  the  life  of  an  Indian, 
and  to  some  extent  govern  many  of  his  actions.  His  idea  is 
that  during  sleep  his  soul  detaches  itself  from  his  body,  passing 
out  through  the  chest,  and  actually  does  the  things  that  he 
dreams  about.  The  Tcilyikhama  are  supposed  to  be  con- 
tinually hovering  round,  watching  for  an  opportunity  to  enter 
the  body  during  the  absence  of  the  soul ; and  in  some  cases 
they  co-operate,  one  seizing  the  soul,  while  another  takes 
possession  of  the  body.  Dreaming  is,  therefore,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Indian,  an  adventurous  journeying  of  the  soul,  attended 
by  much  danger.  While  the  soul  wanders,  being  ethereal,  it  is 
able  to  gratify  its  desires  more  freely  than  if  it  were  in  the 
body.  The  satisfaction  which  it  derives  in  doing  so,  however, 
being  incorporeal,  is  trifling  in  comparison  with  that  which  it 
enjoys  when  in  the  body. 

As  the  Indian  looks  upon  the  body  only  as  a house,  or  an 
instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  soul,  he  considers  that  what  he 
dreams  about  is  in  reality  a declaration  of  the  will  of  the  soul ; 
and  therefoi’e,  whenever  possible,  that  will  must  be  gratified 
through  the  body.  A man  is  likely  to  dream  about  that  which 
occupies  his  mind  most.  Dreams  are  often  a mere  confusion  of 
many  various  impressions  which  have  been  made  upon  the  mind 
at  different  times.  As  a man  thinks,  so  he  is. 

The  thoughts  of  an  Indian  are  chiefly  centred  on  the  gratifi- 
cation of  his  physical  desires,  and  he  firmly  believes  that  his 
dreams  are  to  be  looked  upon  generally  as  warnings  and  guides 
to  his  conduct,  or  intimations  as  to  what  particular  course  of 

127 


DREAMS 


action  he  should  pursue.  In  dreamland,  souls  are  supposed  to 
meet  with  each  other  and  enact  in  the  spirit  what  they  would 
in  all  probability  do  in  the  body,  if  given  the  opportunity.  It 
is  clear  that  a race  holding  such  theories  must  be  exceedingly 
difficult  of  comprehension  by  Europeans,  their  actions  very  apt 
to  be  misconstrued  and  their  attitude  misinterpreted. 

Perhaps  I shall  best  bring  home  to  the  reader  the  attitude  of 
the  Indian  mind  towards  dreams  by  giving  illustrations  of  the 
various  ways  in  which  he  is  influenced  by  them.  The  Indian  is 
by  no  means  a truthful  person,  but  even  in  a heathen  state  he 
usually  stands  by  any  compact  which  he  makes,  and  this  I have 
had  abundant  opportunity  of  proving.  When  he  fails  to  keep 
his  contract,  it  is  as  often  the  fault  of  the  European  as  his. 
But  there  is  another  element  unknown  to  most,  which  has  great 
weight  with  the  Indian.  The  following  example  will  serve  to 
show  how  easily  he  may  be  misunderstood  by  the  inexperienced 
foreigner : 

In  the  early  years  of  my  sojourn  in  the  Chaco  I contracted 
with  an  Indian  to  remain  with  me  and  serve  me  for  six  con- 
secutive months.  In  return  for  his  services  he  was  to  receive  a 
horse.  He  acted  very  well  for  six  weeks,  but  one  morning  he 
was  missing,  and  on  inquiry  I found  that  he  had  gone  off  at 
early  dawn  to  his  own  village,  four  days’  journey  away.  I had 
frequently  heard  Paraguayans  and  others  say  that  you  could 
never  rely  upon  an  Indian  and  that  it  was  quite  useless  attempt- 
ing to  make  any  contract  with  him.  My  own  thoughts  at  this 
time  were  that  the  man  had  become  tired  of  staying  with  me  or 
dissatisfied  with  the  work  given  him.  Not  only  did  I resent 
his  leaving  without  the  least  warning,  but  I was  also  much  dis- 
appointed at  his  breaking  the  contract  at  all. 

Anxious  to  discover  whether  1 had  unwittingly  given  him 
cause  for  offence,  and  thus  been  myself  perhaps  partly  to 
blame,  I closely  questioned  the  other  Indians.  I was  told  in  a 
matter-of-fact  way  that  the  man  had  gone  off'  because  his  child 
was  sick,  and  they  seemed  surprised  at  my  resentment.  On 
asking  them  why  he  had  not  spoken  to  me  about  it,  they  re- 
plied : “ He  knew  very  well  you  would  not  let  him  go.”  I 

128 


DREAMS 


thought  over  the  matter  carefully,  and  could  not  make  out  how 
he  had  come  to  know  that  his  child  was  sick.  No  one  had 
arrived  who  could  possibly  have  brought  such  news,  so  I con- 
cluded that  his  fellows  had,  in  giving  this  excuse  for  him,  tried 
to  deceive  me.  Some  two  weeks  afterwards  a visitor  arrived 
from  this  man’s  village.  I inquired  of  him  about  the  child, 
and  he  informed  me  that  there  was  nothing  wrong.  This 
convinced  me  that  my  surmises  were  correct. 

About  a month  afterwards,  however,  the  man  returned, 
apparently  in  perfect  good-humour,  and  proceeded  quite  as  a 
matter  of  course  to  resume  his  duties.  I challenged  him  about 

I his  late  conduct.  He  had  heard  that  I had  been  angry  about 
his  leaving,  but  his  attitude  was  that  of  a man  who  had  been 
unjustly  accused.  He  told  me  that  he  did  not  want  to  leave 
me,  that  he  had  promised  to  work  for  me  for  six  months,  and 
that  he  never  intended  to  break  his  word.  When  questioned 
about  his  child,  he  admitted  that  he  left  because  he  had  thought 
the  child  was  ill,  but  it  was  not.  He  had  felt  tired  after  his 
journey,  and  found  it  necessary  to  do  some  gardening,  but  he 
had  now  returned  to  complete  his  contract.  Apparently  he  did 
not  in  the  least  realize  that  he  had  done  anything  wrong.  It 
was  not  until  long  after  that  I learnt  he  had  made  this  journey 
because  he  had  dreamed  that  his  child  was  sick. 

To  illustrate  the  native  belief  that  souls  meet  with  each  other 
in  dreamland,  and  the  theory  of  intention  connected  therewith, 
I give  an  account  of  an  interview  I once  had  with  an  Indian. 
This  man  ari'ived  at  my  village  from  a place  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  off.  He  asked  me  for  compensation  for  some 
pumpkins  which  I had  recently  stolen  from  his  garden.  I was 
thoroughly  surprised,  and  told  him  I had  not  been  near  his 
village  for  a very  long  time,  and  so  could  not  possibly  have  stolen 
his  pumpkins.  At  first  I thought  he  was  joking,  but  I soon 
perceived  that  he  was  quite  serious.  It  was  a novel  experience 
for  me  to  be  accused  by  an  Indian  of  theft.  On  my  expostu- 
lating with  him,  he  admitted  quite  frankly  that  I had  not 
taken  the  pumpkins.  When  he  said  this  I was  more  bewildered 
still.  I should  have  lost  patience  with  him  had  he  not  been 

129  ! 


DREAMS 

evidently  in  real  earnest,  and  I became  deeply  interested 
instead. 

Eventually  I discovered  that  he  had  dreamed  he  was  out  in 
his  garden  one  night,  and  saw  me,  from  behind  some  tall  plants, 
break  off  and  carry  away  three  pumpkins,  and  it  was  payment 
for  these  that  he  wanted.  “ Yes,”  I said,  “but  you  have  just 
admitted  that  I did  not  take  them.”  He  again  assented,  but 
replied  immediately,  “ If  you  had  been  there,  you  would  have 
taken  them,”  thus  showing  that  he  regarded  the  act  of  my  soul, 
which  he  supposed  had  met  his  in  the  garden,  to  be  really  my 
will,  and  what  I should  actually  have  done  had  I been  there  in 
the  body. 

The  theory  that  the  act  of  the  soul,  perceived  through  dreams, 
would  actually  be  the  intention  of  the  person  in  the  body  is 
exemplified  very  fully  in  the  motives  which  prompted  an  Indian 
named  Poit  to  attempt  my  murder  (see  Chapter  XXV.). 

This  doctrine  of  intention  has  been  found  very  useful  indeed 
in  teaching  Christianity,  the  more  so  because  the  Indian  holds 
to  exactly  the  same  doctrine  even  when  unconnected  with  dreams, 
and  this  idea  is  forcibly  brought  out  in  the  execution  of  Poit. 
The  Indian  executes  for  murder ; I was  not  murdered,  but  the 
Indians,  on  being  questioned  as  to  the  extreme  measures  they 
took,  justified  their  act  on  the  ground  that  it  was  by  mere 
chance  that  Poit  had  not  killed  me.  The  fact  that  I escaped 
did  not  in  the  least  mitigate  his  act,  for  his  intention  was  clearly 
to  compass  my  death. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  dreams  influence  them 
in  the  pursuit  of  their  physical  desires,  I will  give  one  of  the 
many  instances  which  occur  frequently  in  Indian  life.  While 
sleeping  in  an  Indian  village,  one  morning  I awoke  long  before 
the  first  light,  and  noticed  a number  of  men  sitting  round  a 
fire  engaged  in  animated  conversation.  Joining  the  party,  I 
found  that  they  were  laying  plans  for  a hunting  expedition. 
The  night  before  I had  heard  nothing  of  such  a project.  I 
found  that  they  were  proposing  to  sally  forth  to  some  open 
plains  some  distance  to  the  north,  where  they  expected  to  find 
ostriches.  While  listening  to  the  conversation,  I gathered  that 

130 


DREAMS 


one  of  the  men  had  just  had  a dream,  and  in  it  had  seen 
ostriches  in  that  district.  The  reader  has  been  told  how 
particularly  fond  of  ostrich  flesh  the  Indian  is,  and  how  the 
feathers  are  coveted  as  a personal  ornament,  as  well  as  for  their 
value  as  barter,  so  he  will  not  be  surprised  that  the  dreamer  had 
a keen  and  interested  audience.  So  firmly  were  they  convinced 
that  they  would  find  this  game  that  they  were  then  arranging 
for  the  hunt  as  soon  as  day  dawned,  and  were  so  excited  over  it 
that  further  sleep  was  out  of  the  question. 

Witchcraft  would  almost  cease  to  exist  were  it  not  for  their 
superstitions,  supported  by  their  dreams.  A few  examples  will 
suffice  to  explain  this  statement,  but  it  is  necessary  first  to 
remark  upon  their  habits  at  night.  In  all  my  experiences  I 
have  never  yet  spent  a night  in  an  Indian  village  when  all  the 
occupants  were  asleep  at  the  same  time.  For  this  there  are 
many  reasons,  which  are  given  elsewhere.  The  point  which  I 
want  to  bring  out  is  that  during  the  sleeping  hours  conversation 
between  a few  sitting  round  the  fires  is  carried  on  in  an  ordinary 
tone  of  voice.  Nocturnal  sounds,  such  as  wolves  howling,  the 
cry  of  birds,  the  rustling  of  the  wind,  and  the  hundred  and  one 
strange  noises  of  the  tropical  night  in  a primeval  land,  as  well 
as  ordinary  actions,  such  as  the  sharpening  of  arrow-points, 
chopping  wood,  pouring  out  water,  all  serve  to  act  as  suggestions 
to  the  sleepers,  and  doubtless  in  many  cases  give  rise  to  dreams 
connected  with  such  things.  It  is  well  known  that  the  mere 
whispering  of  a few  words  in  a sleeper’s  ear  may  induce  a dream 
corresponding  with  their  import. 

The  Indians  suffer  from  rheumatism  and  other  complaints, 
consequent  upon  their  exposed  life ; and  their  habit  of  eating 
chiefly  in  the  evening,  because  the  game  which  they  hunt  down 
is  not  brought  home  until  the  close  of  day,  gives  rise  not  only 
to  frequent  nightmare,  but  also,  it  must  be  admitted,  to  the 
pains  of  indigestion.  We  can  quite  understand  how  a pain 
which  would  scarcely  be  felt  in  the  full  activity  of  the  body  by 
a man  while  engaged  in  the  day’s  pursuits,  may  produce  an 
acute  sensation  in  the  brain  during  the  hours  of  sleep.  A feeling, 
for  example,  of  a sharp  rheumatic  pain  in  the  leg  or  arm, 

131 


DREAMS 


coupled  with  the  fact  that  the  Indian’s  mind  is  steeped  in 
superstition,  might  very  possibly  occasion  a dream  such  as  the 
following,  which  was  recounted  to  me  by  an  Indian. 

A spirit  appeared  in  the  form  of  a horned  beetle,  and,  flying 
round  the  sleeper  several  times,  eventually  entered  his  body  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  knee.  The  pain  of  its  entrance  was  distinctly 
felt.  The  sleeper,  awakening,  noticed  no  mark  or  other  sign  of 
injury.  The  pain,  however,  was  still  slightly  felt.  What 
explanation  could  there  be,  according  to  the  Indian’s  way  of 
thinking,  except  that  an  actual  beetle  had  entered,  possessed  by 
a spirit  ? The  fact  that  no  opening  was  to  be  seen  was  attri- 
buted to  the  power  of  the  spirit.  The  aid  of  the  witch-doctor 
was  at  once  called  in,  and  he  extracted  the  beetle  by  means  of 
suction,  and  actually  showed  it  to  the  sufferer  and  others. 
That  no  wound  was  caused  in  the  extraction  was  explained  by 
the  doctor’s  power  of  sorcery.  Thus  the  Indian’s  belief  in 
dreams  is  strengthened,  and  his  superstitions  gain  force  as  well. 

On  another  occasion  an  Indian  dreamt  that  he  was  eating  a 
kala  (water-fowl),  and  said  that  on  waking  he  had  heard  the 
screeching  of  these  birds  in  the  swamp  near  by.  In  the  morning 
he  informed  his  neighbours  that  his  young  child,  which  was 
with  its  mother  at  another  village,  had  been  awake  most  of  the 
night.  A superstition  prevails  that  a man  who  has  a young 
child  should  not  eat  this  bird,  because,  if  he  does,  his  child  will 
be  sleepless  during  the  succeeding  night.  In  this  case  it  is 
evident  that  the  cry  of  these  water-fowls  in  the  night  had 
given  rise  to  his  dream,  and,  holding  this  superstition,  he  con- 
cluded that,  as  in  spirit  he  had  eaten  of  it,  so  his  child  that 
night  had  suffered  for  his  rash  act. 

One  more  instance  will  suffice  to  show  how  their  dreams  work 
in  conjunction  with  their  superstitions.  An  Indian  dreamed 
that,  feeling  thirsty,  he  went  to  a well  near  by  to  get  some 
water  in  the  night,  and  had  seen  coming  towards  him  the  ghost 
of  an  aunt  of  his,  leaning  upon  a stick,  and  with  her  otter-skin 
cloak  wrapped  tightly  round  her  shoulders.  He  awoke  in  terror, 
and  communicated  his  dream  to  some  of  the  others.  The  whole 
village  was  soon  awake,  and,  filled  with  superstitious  dread,  they 

132 


A Lengua  Witch-Doctor  In  ti-ie  Forest 

The  face  shows  the  chief  qualification,  viz.  deceit.  A witch-  Extracting  water  from  the  “caraguata”  plant.  From  the 

doctor  is  also  recognized  by  his  unkempt  condition,  dirt,  and  formation  of  its  leaves  it  catches  and  holds  rain-water  for  many 

ragged  blanket.  weeks.  The  leaves  are  protected  by  a row  of  thorns,  thus  pre- 

venting animals  from  drinking. 


DREAMS 


crowded  together,  being  afraid  to  sleep  again  that  night.  One 
of  the  old  men,  with  gourd  and  chant,  endeavoured  to  scare  off 
the  ghost.  The  suggestion  for  the  dream,  in  this  case,  may  not 
be  far  to  seek.  The  memory  of  his  aunt’s  death  was  fresh  with 
him.  It  is  possible  that  while  he  slept,  some  of  his  fellows,  as 
they  sat  round  a fire  conversing,  may  have  referred  to  the  place 
where  she  died,  or  to  some  other  circumstance  which  reminded 
him  of  her.  His  going  to  the  well  for  water  may  have  been 
prompted  by  a feeling  of  thirst,  or  the  sound  of  someone  pouring 
out  water  from  a jar,  or  even  bv  someone  asking  if  there  was 
water  to  be  had.  It  will  be  observed  that  not  only  the  man 
himself  believed  in  his  dream,  but  that  all  the  people  with  him 
were  convinced  that  the  ghost  must  have  been  in  the  vicinity, 
else  he  would  not  have  dreamed  of  it. 

The  uneasy  conscience  of  the  Indian  adds  fear  to  his  dreams, 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  incident : I was  travelling  with 
seven  men  in  the  direction  of  the  Kyoinamyip  clans,  but  on 
arriving  at  the  River  Verde  we  found  it  so  swollen,  and  the 
neighbouring  country  so  flooded,  that  progress  was  difficult.  I 
therefore  decided  not  to  continue  my  journey,  but  to  content 
myself  with  visiting  a large  village  about  fifteen  miles  farther 
on,  where  a feast  was  being  held.  I arranged  to  leave  five  men 
at  the  river,  and  to  proceed  with  the  other  two.  After  selecting 
these  two,  I was  surprised  to  find  that  one  refused  to  go.  On 
inquiring  the  reason,  the  others  informed  me  that  two  men  at 
the  village  intended  to  kill  this  man,  and  that  therefore  it  was 
unsafe  for  him  to  proceed.  I accordingly  chose  another  in  his 
place.  The  people,  although  many  of  them  were  intoxicated, 
gave  me  a hearty  welcome,  and  pressed  me  to  stay  with  them. 
But  I told  them  that  I had  left  some  of  my  party  behind,  and 
being  curious  to  discover  whether  there  was  any  truth  in  the 
report  that  they  wished  to  kill  the  man  in  question,  I mentioned 
the  names  of  those  left  behind.  As  far  as  I could  see,  there 
appeared  to  be  no  sign  of  ill-will,  and  far  less  of  any  contem- 
plated violence. 

Some  days  later  I learnt  that  the  statement  had  been  made 
to  me  on  the  strength  of  a dream,  and  I sought  a favourable 

133 


DREAMS 


opportunity  to  elicit  further  particulars.  I eventually  found  out 
that  the  man  whose  life  was  supposed  to  be  threatened  had  got 
into  grave  trouble  about  a year  previously  over  a marriage 
question.  Having  heard  during  the  evening  that  I intended 
going  to  that  same  village,  and  had  selected  him  as  one  of  my 
companions,  he  evidently  recalled  the  evil  he  had  done  the  year 
before,  and,  realizing  that  it  merited  punishment,  was  visited  by 
a dream  naturally  connected  with  that  subject. 

Only  one  point  of  any  importance  in  the  matter  of  dreams 
remains  to  be  illustrated,  and  this  is  the  danger  to  which  the 
soul  is  supposed  to  be  liable  when  it  wanders  from  the  body. 
The  following  dream  was  related  to  me  by  one  of  our  most 
intelligent  Indians.  A man  of  his  acquaintance  woke  up  with  a 
great  start,  and  was  so  terrified  that  for  a time  he  could  not 
explain  the  reason  of  his  fear.  Eventually  it  transpired  that  as 
he  dreamed,  his  spirit  had  moved  only  a little  way  from  the 
village,  when  it  was  seized  by  a gigantic  kilyikhama.  He 
saw  several  of  them  near,  and  he  noticed  that  one  (a  smaller 
one)  ran  quickly  to  where  he  had  left  his  body.  He — that  is, 
his  soul — was  carried  for  some  distance,  but  finally,  on  the  edge 
of  a forest,  he  managed  to  escape,  and,  trembling  with  fear, 
rushed  back  to  the  village.  What  happened  subsequently  he 
could  not  tell,  as  at  this  juncture  he  awoke. 

It  is  believed  that  sometimes  a kilyikhama  actually  does 
enter  the  body,  the  soul  having  been  carried  to  a distance  by  a 
co-operating  kilyikhama , where  it  is  left.  Fearing  that  the 
other  evil  spirit  has  taken  possession  of  its  body,  it  dare  not 
return,  and  has  to  await  the  signal  from  the  witch-doctor,  in 
the  form  of  a particular  chant,  announcing  that  the  usurping 
kilyikhama  has  been  cast  out,  and  that  it  is  therefore  safe  to 
return.  It  must  be  remembered  that,  according  to  the  Indian, 
the  absence  of  the  soul  from  the  body  during  a dream  does  not 
imply  that  the  body  is  lifeless  ; on  the  contrary,  physical  and 
mental  life  still  continue.  Apparently,  therefore,  he  holds  that 
he  is  composed  of  a threefold  combination — body,  mind,  and 
spirit — although  he  is  not  able  to  explain  the  phenomenon. 
And  how  the  body,  when  taken  possession  of  by  a kilyikhama , 

134 


DREAMS 


is  able  to  give  notice  of  the  fact  to  the  witch-doctor,  I have 
never  been  able  to  ascertain.  It  seems  to  be  contradictory,  and 
the  very  idea  is  ludicrous — a man  sitting  up  in  full  strength  and 
vigour,  apparently  in  doubt  as  to  whether  he  is  himself  or  not, 
and  asserting  that  his  soul  is  at  a distance. 

Occasionally  it  would  seem  that  no  sooner  does  the  soul 
emerge  from  the  chest  (why  the  chest  I am  not  able  to  explain), 
than  it  is  at  once  seized  upon  by  a kilyikhama.  I have 
myself  seen  an  Indian  graphically  imitate  the  manner  in  which 
the  kilyikhama  are  supposed  to  hover  over  the  sleeping  form, 
and  wait  for  the  soul  to  issue  from  the  chest  of  the  sleeper,  as  it 
goes  forth  seeking  adventures.  Such  dreams  as  this,  I suppose, 
are  the  result  of  a strong  imagination,  influenced  by  deep-seated 
superstitious  belief. 

This  account  will  enable  the  reader  to  realize  that  the  life  of 
an  Indian  is  not,  after  all,  the  free,  thoughtless,  unburdened 
and  happy  existence  which  he  is  often  supposed  to  lead  : and 
further,  that  his  religious  views,  if  I may  so  call  them,  are  not, 
even  for  him,  the  most  suitable  and  best.  The  fair-minded 
reader  will,  with  very  little  effort,  be  able  to  understand  what  an 
inexpressible  relief  it  must  be  to  an  Indian  to  have  his  mind 
enlightened  to  such  an  extent  that  he  no  longer  lives  in  a state 
of  constant  supernatural  dread.  This  relief,  among  others,  it 
has  been  one  of  the  Mission’s  privileges  to  bring  to  him. 


LENGUA  METHOD  OP  PRODUCING  FIRE. 

135 


CHAPTER  XIV 
SUPERSTITION 

Most  of  the  Indians’  superstitions  have  an  underlying  stratum 
of  fact,  although  they  do  not  perceive  it,  and  simply  give  them 
credence  without  inquiring  further.  For  example,  when  the 
south  wind  blows  they  take  off  their  blankets  and  shake  them, 
doing  this,  they  say,  in  order  to  shake  out  the  sickness  which 
they  think  it  brings.  The  Indian  does  not  understand  the 
connection  between  the  south  wind  and  sickness,  and  yet  in 
reality  the  facts  tally  with  what  he  believes.  North  and  south 
are  the  most  prevalent  winds  in  this  region.  To  the  north  is 
the  practically  unpeopled  waste  of  Matto  Grosso,  and  the 
equally  sparsely  populated  northern  Chaco.  There  are,  there- 
fore, in  this  direction,  no  centres  of  population  where  diseases 
such  as  measles,  small-pox  and  influenza  could  originate.  The 
settlements  of  any  consequence  in  which  they  are  propagated  lie 
to  the  south-east. 

Although  disease  germs  may  not  be  carried  a great  distance 
by  the  wind,  nevertheless  the  Southern  Indians  and  those  along 
the  river  to  the  south-east  contract  these  diseases  from  the 
whites  ; they  spread  among  these  tribes,  and  eventually  reach  the 
Indians  in  the  Paraguayan  Chaco.  Thus  these  diseases,  whether 
by  direct  contact  or  through  germs  carried  by  the  wind,  have 
reallv  reached  them  from  the  south.  Furthermore,  the  south 
wind  is  cold,  and  striking  upon  their  indifferently-protected 
bodies,  subjected  for  long  periods  to  tropical  heat,  it  produces 
the  various  complications  following  upon  chill. 

The  Indian  suffers  also  very  frequently  from  gumboils.  He 
attributes  their  origin  to  the  eating  of  fat,  of  which  he  is 

136 


SUPERSTITION 


inordinately  fond.  There  is  some  truth  in  this.  The  eating  of 
fat  upsets  their  digestive  organs,  and  this  in  turn  acts  harmfully 
upon  any  weak  spot  in  their  teeth. 

They  have  a habit  of  rubbing  the  knees  and  ankles  of  their 
children  with  the  grease  of  the  ant-bear  and  the  ring-tailed  bear. 
This  they  do  in  order  to  make  their  legs  strong,  and  un- 
doubtedly the  rubbing,  not  to  mention  the  grease,  may  have 
some  good  effects. 

At  various  periods  they  make  paint  marks  upon  their  bodies, 
unconnected  with  mere  ornamentation.  These  marks  have 
reference  to  physical  conditions. 

Mothers  are  forbidden  to  eat  vegetables  of  a certain  crude 
shape,  as  they  are  supposed  to  have  a bad  effect.  Also  they  are 
not  allowed  to  partake  of  soup  made  from  the  heads  of  animals, 
and  young  children  are  forbidden  to  eat  of  young  meat  such 
as  veal. 

Milk,  whether  of  the  cow,  goat,  sheep,  or  mare,  is  never 
drunk.  The  older  people  seem  to  consider  it  unfit  for  them, 
and  children  are  forbidden  it  because  it  is  supposed  that  the 
milk  upon  which  they  are  nourished  will  influence  them 
physically  as  well  as  in  character,  and  the  Indians  have  no 
desire  that  their  children  should  in  any  way  acquire  the  natures 
of  such  animals. 

The  sensitive  plant,  if  secreted  in  the  food,  is  believed  to  have 
the  remarkable  power  of  producing  love  of  home.  If  you  want 
a man  to  be  attached  to  you  and  always  to  remain  with  you, 
try  and  induce  him  wittingly  to  eat  of  this  plant.  If  he  does, 
you  can  rest  assured  you  have  accomplished  your  object. 

I remember  that  one  day  the  Indians  were  discussing  the 
probability  of  my  leaving  them  after  a time,  and  returning  to 
my  own  country  for  good.  This  they  were  very  much  averse 
to,  and  pressed  me  very  hard  to  eat  some  of  the  sensitive  plant. 
I took  a little  just  to  please  them,  and  they  then  triumphantly 
informed  me  that  we  should  always  be  comrades,  and  that  if  I 
went  away  at  any  time  with  a view  to  living  in  my  own  country, 
I should  grieve  so  much  after  them  that  I should  be  forced  to 
return  and  dwell  with  them. 


137 


SUPERSTITION 


Occasionally  an  Indian  falls  out  with  his  companions  and 
goes  off  in  a huff,  intending  to  travel  to  some  distant  village. 
Should  they  not  desire  this,  one  of  them  will  follow  the  man, 
and,  on  finding  a certain  plant  by  the  wayside,  will  pick  it 
and  throw  it  over  his  shoulder.  Having  done  this,  he  returns 
firmly  convinced  that  the  man  will  stop  and  turn  back.  In 
the  case  of  the  sensitive  plant,  its  peculiarity  of  seeming  to 
have  a power  of  feeling  probably  caused  them  to  adopt  it  as 
a charm. 

They  have  many  other  amulets,  some  of  which  I know 
slightly,  but  it  would  be  tedious  to  describe  them  all.  Two  or 
three,  however,  may  be  worth  mentioning.  Manuscripts  and 
printed  paper,  when  obtainable,  are  preserved  in  order  that 
they  may  make  charms  relating  to  us,  writing  being  in  their 
eyes  our  special  symbol.  In  hunting  they  use  various  plants  as 
charms,  which  they  either  carry  on  their  persons  or  rub  on 
their  weapons.  They  sprinkle  the  blood  of  a duck  in  order  to 
procure  rain.  They  wear  a red  head-covering  for  hunting  the 
deer,  as  it  arouses  the  curiosity  of  that  animal  and  facilitates 
stalking.  Wax  images  of  animals  they  also  use  as  charms  in 
hunting. 

When  a man  expresses  a desire  for  rain  or  for  a cool  south 
wind,  his  neighbours,  if  they  do  not  share  the  desire,  protest 
strongly,  and  implore  him  not  to  persist  in  his  wish.  They 
always  considered  that  I had  particular  power  in  influencing  the 
south  wind,  and  believed  that  by  whistling  or  hissing  I could 
bring  it  up  at  will.  This  probably  was  owing  to  the  fact  that 
Europeans  welcome  this  wind  as  a pleasant  change  from  the 
exhausting  heat.  When  a sudden  rain-storm  rises,  they  wait 
until  it  has  almost  ceased,  and  then,  as  it  were,  pushing  it  away 
with  their  hands,  they  cry  out  vigorously,  “ Whay  ! whay  !”  It 
is  very  common  to  hear  a woman  cry  out  to  a man,  “ Iwatikap  !” 
(Blow  it  away  !) . On  a cloudy  day,  when  the  sun  has  been 
obscured  for  some  time,  an  old  man  is  sometimes  seen  to  take  a 
firebrand  and  hold  it  up  to  the  sun,  apparently  with  the  inten- 
tion of  encouraging  the  luminary  to  show  his  face  again.  This 
is  perhaps  connected  with  the  idea  of  the  Peruvian  Indians, 

138 


SUPERSTITION 


who,  wb^n  the  sun  is  obscured,  think  that  he  is  angry,  and  is 
turning  ay  his  face  from  them. 

The  Mi.ky  Way  is  supposed  to  be  the  path  of  the 
kilyikhama.  There  some  of  them,  in  the  form  of  large 
white  birds,  are  believed  to  wait  their  opportunity  to  descend 
upon  and  enter  into  the  bodies  of  men.  To  the  Milky  Way 
also  pass  the  stones  used  in  burial  rites  (see  Chapter  XVI.). 

Whirlwinds  are  believed  to  be  the  passing  of  spirits,  and  the 
Indian  throws  sticks  at  them  in  order  to  drive  the  spirit  away. 
Dobrizhoffer  remarks  that  the  Abipones  threw  ashes  in  the 
path  of  the  whirlwind,  that  it  might  be  satisfied  with  food. 

The  sun  and  moon,  when  they  set,  are  supposed  to  have  gone 
in  search  of  food. 

Some  hold  that  when  the  moon  is  red,  it  has  seen  a crime  of 
blood,  and  takes  that  hue  in  order  to  rebuke  the  perpetrators. 
Years  after  the  massacre  in  Tierra  del  Fuego  of  Captain  Fell, 
of  the  South  American  Missionary  Society,  and  his  party,  the 
Yaghan  Indians  related  how,  shortly  after  the  crime,  the  moon 
appeared  of  a blood-red  colour,  and  they  connected  this  pheno- 
menon with  the  deed  they  had  committed. 

The  moon  is  also  supposed  to  be  associated  with  marriage, 
the  young  girls  addressing  the  new  moon  with  the  appeal, 
“ Moon,  moon,  I want  to  get  married.” 

The  solar  halo  is  believed  to  indicate  that  a battle  is  in 
progress  on  the  frontiers,  and  that  much  blood  is  being  shed. 

The  Pleiades  are  known  by  two  names  — apasmamaap 
(holders  together),  and  lantebiam  (mounting  in  the  south). 
Their  rising  is  connected  with  the  beginning  of  spring,  and 
feasts  are  held  at  this  time,  generally  of  a markedly  immoral 
character.  Dobrizhoffer,  in  writing  of  the  Abipones  of  the 
Southern  Chaco,  says  : “ After  long  and  frequent  consideration, 
it  appears  most  probable  to  my  mind  that  the  savages  derived 
the  knowledge  and  the  worship  of  the  Pleiades  from  the 
ancient  Peruvians,  who  are  said  to  have  adored  . . . the 
Pleiades,  whom  they  called  Colca.”  He  goes  on  to  say  that 
they  regarded  “the  Pleiades  as  the  representation  of  their 
grandfather  the  devil.” 


139 


SUPERSTITION 


This  Jesuit  had  spent  seven  years  among  these  Indians,  but 
as  I have  spent  twenty,  continually  associating  with  them  on 
the  most  intimate  terms,  I shall  take  the  liberty  of  making  a 
few  remai'ks  upon  this  assertion.  The  term  “ grandfather  ” is 
often  used  amongst  the  Indians,  generally  as  applying  to  a 
distant  ancestor.  In  this  particular  part  of  the  Chaco  it  is 
quite  as  common  to  address  a person  of  distinct  race  and  of 
superior  standing  as  aksak.  We  missionaries  are  so  addressed 
by  them.  But  they  only  apply  the  term  to  those  with  whom 
power  and  authority  are  supposed  to  rest.  Evil  spirits  are 
referred  to  also  as  aksak.  But,  what  is  most  important  of  all, 
they  term  the  creator  beetle  aksak.  It  almost  amounts  to 
this  : aksak , although  literally  “ a thing,”  can  be  used  as  the 
title  of  a person,  and  when  so  used  it  implies  something  beyond 
us  which  we  do  not  quite  grasp  and  understand.  I have  never 
known  the  Indians  refer  to  the  Paraguayans  in  this  way,  nor  to 
traders,  surveyors,  or  ordinary  settlers.  It  connotes  something 
special.  Aksak  wanam , which  is  literally  “the  old  thing,” 
is  also  a term  used  for  something  great  and  particular,  and  I 
have  heard  it  used  to  signify  someone  great  and  ancient.  It  is 
possible,  therefore,  that  the  Indians,  in  referring  to  their  “ grand- 
father the  devil,”  were  in  reality  thinking  of  some  powerful  but 
little  understood  personality  belonging  to  a remote  period ; 
and,  as  they  consider  that  the  Pleiades  represented  him,  they 
doubtless  conceived  him  as  a being  of  great  antiquity.  They 
must  have  observed  the  Pleiades  for  centuries,  and  their  likening 
their  grandfather  to  such  an  object  implies  that  they  revered 
him  as  a being  of  great  might  and  power.  In  my  own  opinion, 
the  statement  of  Dobrizhoffer  that  the  Abipones  looked  upon 
themselves  as  the  descendants,  or,  it  may  be,  the  creation,  of 
their  “ grandfather  the  devil,”  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the 
widespread  tradition  that  man  was  created  by  the  beetle,  and 
therefore  their  originator,  instead  of  being  a devil,  was  rather  a 
creating  god. 

I have  heard  from  a few  Indians  a remarkable  theory  that 
among  the  stars  there  are  countries  similar  to  their  own,  with 
forests  and  lakes.  The  Indian  has  no  idea  of  astronomy,  and 

140 


SUPERSTITION 

I can  think  of  only  two  possible  explanations  of  this  theory.  One 
— that  they  have  a childlike  notion  that  the  sky  is  solid,  and  is, 
as  it  were,  a continuation  of  the  earth  ; the  other,  which  is 
much  more  probable,  that  these  Indians  either  had  traditions, 
or  had  received  a detailed  account  from  other  Indians  of  some 
wonderful  mirages  in  remote  countries.  Mirages  are  certainly 
to  be  seen  in  the  Chaco,  but  not  of  a kind  which  would  give 
rise  to  such  an  idea  as  this. 

The  rainbow  is  held  by  some  to  be  symbolic  of  some  serpentine 
monster.  When  seen  in  the  west  or  north-west,  the  Indian 
will  not  handle  sharp  instruments,  such  as  a knife  or  axe,  for 
fear  of  being  hurt.  It  is  true  he  knows  that  the  rainbow  indi- 
cates  a break  in  the  weather,  but,  generally  speaking,  his  idea 
of  the  rainbow  is  that  it  is  a sign  of  calamity.  It  is  possible 
that  this  belief  may  have  come  down  to  them  in  connection 
with  the  story  of  the  Flood,  but,  as  I have  discovered  no 
definite  tradition  of  the  Flood,  and  as  it  is  difficult  to  conjecture 
what  relation  cutting  instruments  would  have  to  it,  I incline 
rather  to  another  more  likely  explanation.  The  standard  of 
the  Incas  of  Peru  was  a rainbow.  Everything  points  to  the 
fact  that  the  Inca  legions  frequently  waged  war  with  the  Chaco 
1 tribes,  and  the  association,  therefore,  of  the  rainbow  with  sharp 
cutting  instruments  and  a serpentine  monster  has  at  the  least  a 
claim  to  probability.  The  Incas  had  a large,  well-trained  army. 
Military  roads,  parts  of  which  exist  to  the  present  day,  were 
made  for  their  convenience.  But  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Chaco 
no  such  roads  have  ever  existed.  The  troops  would  be  compelled, 
by  the  nature  of  the  country,  to  travel  in  a long-drawn-out  line, 
and  as  these  paths  would,  owing  to  physical  obstacles,  be  of  a 
winding  nature,  the  symbolism  of  the  serpentine  form,  in 
connection  with  the  rainbow  standard,  seems  natural  and 
appropriate. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  spirit  of  the  horse.  In  keep- 
ing with  this  idea  they  have  a superstitious  dread  of  horse’s 
bones.  A native  does  not  like  even  to  handle  them.  One 
Sunday  morning,  while  walking  with  our  first  Indian  convert, 
Philip,  I was  conversing  with  him  about  their  superstitions,  and 

141 


SUPERSTITION 


endeavouring  to  ascertain  how  far  his  acceptance  of  Christianity 
had  overcome  his  superstitious  fears.  After  a short  time  he 
left  my  side  suddenly,  and  stood  a little  way  from  the  path. 
His  manner  struck  me  as  sti'ange,  and  on  joining  him  I found 
him  standing  on  a heap  of  horse’s  bones.  He  neither  shook  nor 
seemed  inclined  to  move,  until  I asked  him  for  an  explanation. 
Pointing  to  the  bones  beneath  his  feet,  he  said  : “ I no  longer 
fear  that  which  my  people  fear.”  In  this  way,  by  alluding  to 
one  superstition,  he  signified  that  he  had  ceased  to  be  influenced 
by  any  of  them. 

In  a wild  region  like  the  Chaco,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
strange  and  weird  sounds  are  heard,  especially  at  night,  some, 
too,  being  quite  inexplicable.  One  in  particular  is  the  sound 
as  of  people  whispering  in  the  woods.  This  has  been  heard  by 
Europeans  and  Indians  alike.  According  to  their  description,  it 
is  exactly  as  if  a group  of  men  were  in  hiding  and  concocting 
some  plot  in  low  whispers.  All  agree  that  the  sounds  are 
remarkably  human.  The  Indians’  theory  of  this  is  that  the 
travelling  spirits  of  the  Spaniards  enter  the  woods,  when  they 
meet  with  Indians,  and  remain  there  taking  observation  of  them, 
whispering  so  as  not  to  attract  attention.  The  Indians  in  such 
circumstances  admit  to  feeling  eerie,  which  I can  quite  believe. 
But  they  are  not  actually  afraid,  and  do  not  deem  it  necessary, 
on  account  of  these  sounds,  to  move  their  camp,  as  they 
certainly  would  if  they  thought  they  were  the  spirits  of  their 
own  people. 

Infanticide  is  referred  to  elsewhere,  but  as  many  of  the  causes 
leading  up  to  it  are  based  on  superstition,  I shall  touch  upon 
them  here.  Twins  they  consider  unlucky.  Generally,  if  not 
invariably,  both  are  put  to  death.  I have  remarked  that  many 
of  their  superstitions  have  a stratum  of  fact  underlying  them, 
and  in  some  cases  the  superstition  appears  to  have  been  invented 
by  some  astute  person,  in  order  to  give,  as  it  were,  sanction  to 
acts  which,  from  their  unnatural  character,  would  otherwise  be 
repugnant  to  the  Indian.  In  this  case  it  is  a natural  conclusion 
that  twins  would  not  have  the  same  chance  of  developing  into 
strong  men  and  women,  and  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  great 

142 


SUPERSTITION 


a burden  twins  would  be  to  an  Indian  woman  leading  a pre- 
carious and  nomadic  life.  The  mother,  however,  if  left  to 
herself,  would  from  natural  instinct  desire  to  keep  her  children 
even  at  the  risk  of  being  put  to  inconvenience.  In  order  that 
the  clan  may  be  freed  from  such  a burden,  this  superstition  has 
evidently  been  invented  to  give  sanction  to  infanticide. 

An  Indian  woman,  now  a Christian  and  being  trained  as  a 
nurse  in  the  Mission  hospital,  gave  birth  to  twins  some  nine 
years  ago.  Although  she  was  fa vourably  inclined  to  Christianity, 
her  mother  was  a woman  of  strong  heathen  prejudices,  and  some 
of  the  Christian  natives  at  that  time  had  to  exercise  great 
precautions  lest  the  grandmother  should  murder  the  children, 
as  she  certainly  would  have  done  if  a suitable  opportunity  had 
presented  itself. 

There  are  two  general  reasons  for  infanticide,  superstitious 
support  never  being  lacking.  One  is  that  owing  to  the  kind  of 
life  the  Indians  lead,  a large  infantile  population  would  be  a 
serious  hindrance  to  them,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
travelling  and  of  procuring  suitable  food  for  them.  Moreover, 
it  is  the  custom  of  the  Indian  women  to  suckle  their  children 

ifor  three  or  four  years,  a custom  which  was  also  prevalent  in 
the  eighteenth  century  among  the  Abipones. 

The  other  reason  is  that  infanticide  is  mainly  perpetrated  on 
female  infants  and  by  the  old  women,  who,  knowing  that  their 
comfort,  influence  and  power  depend  upon  there  not  being  too 
many  of  them,  make  use  of  this  means  to  limit  the  number  of 
their  own  sex.  The  result  is  that  every  girl  has  a wide  selection 
of  partnei’s,  and  consequently  many  men  have  to  remain  un- 
married. If  the  man  of  her  choice  does  not  treat  her  well,  she 
simply  divorces  herself,  and  has  no  need  to  remain  long  without 
a husband.  The  men  resent  this  artificial  means  of  destroying 
the  balance  of  the  sexes,  but  superstition  is  strong,  and  they  ai-e 
powerless  to  alter  matters.  A young  Indian  once  said  to  me : 
“ The  women  in  my  country  are  few,  and  when  there  is  one  to 
be  married,  many  desire  to  have  her,  and  we  are  like  vultures 
disputing  over  the  prey.” 

It  is  truly  said  that  “ superstition  dies  hard,”  and  to  break 

143 


SUPERSTITION 


free  from  it  requires  a strong  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Indian 
advancing  from  heathenism  to  Christianity.  But  that  they 
succeed  in  doing  so  shows  that  there  is  latent  in  them  a power 
capable  of  development,  and  it  is  remarkable  how  quickly  they 
escape  from  the  thraldom  of  ages,  when  once  they  take  the  first 
few  steps  towards  enlightenment.  Dreams  and  ghost- stories 
and  the  tricks  of  the  witch-doctors  are  now  topics  of  good- 
humoured  and  mirth-provoking  conversation  around  the  fires  of 
those  who  have  become  the  adherents  of  the  Mission. 

One  little  incident  will  illustrate  the  attitude  of  the  Indian 
Christian’s  mind  towards  superstition.  A young  man,  pre- 
paratory to  concluding  the  marriage  contract  with  an  Indian 
girl,  wished  to  have  some  proof  of  her  Christianity.  The  points 
he  considered  essential  were  that  she  must  cease  to  use  obscene 
language,  must  learn  to  pray,  and  must  no  longer  be  afraid  of 
ghosts.  After  the  lapse  of  a certain  period  he  put  her  to  the 
test.  From  inquiries  he  found  that  her  language  had  been 
faultless ; and  after  hearing  her  pray,  he  was  satisfied  on  that 
point.  But  the  ghost-test  was  severe.  He  sent  her  on  a dark 
night  alone  to  draw  water  from  a swamp,  about  half  a mile 
away,  which  she  successfully  accomplished.  When  it  is  con- 
sidered that  a woman  seldom,  if  ever,  leaves  the  village  after 
dark,  and,  should  there  be  occasion  to  fetch  water  at  night,  she 
is  invariably  accompanied  by  one  of  the  men,  it  will  be  seen  that 
this  girl’s  action  was  courageous. 

Had  she  failed  to  pass  this  examination,  he  would  have 
refused  her,  although  he  knew  full  well  that  it  might  be  many 
years  before  he  would  have  another  opportunity  of  marrying,  as 
any  one  of  his  heathen  companions  would  have  been  only  too 
glad  to  step  into  his  place. 


144 


CHAPTER  XV 
WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 

A wizard  is  one  who  is  endowed  above  his  fellows  with  natural 
acuteness,  knowledge  of  the  phenomena  of  nature,  insight  into 
character,  and  with  an  abnormally  developed  capacity  for 
roguery. 

A Jesuit  Father,  writing  in  the  eighteenth  century  about  the 
Indian  wizards,  says : “ There  is  not  one  of  the  savages  who 
does  not  believe  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  these  conjurors  to 
inflict  disease  and  death,  to  cure  all  disorders,  to  make  known 
distant  and  future  events,  to  cause  rain,  hail,  and  tempests  . . . 
and  to  handle  any  kind  of  serpent  without  danger  . . . credu- 
lous savages,  who  account  every  new  thing  which  they  have 
never  seen  before  a prodigy,  and  so  attribute  it  to  magic.  . . . 
This  simplicity  of  an  ignorant  people  the  crafty  j ugglers  know 
well  how  to  turn  to  their  own  advantage.” 

Every  village  has  its  witch-doctor,'  whose  duty  it  is  to 
protect  his  own  people  from  supernatural  evil,  and  by  means 
of  his  sorceries  to  avenge  them  when  wronged. 

The  office  of  a wizard  is  not  necessarily  hereditary,  although 
it  does  sometimes  run  in  families.  Their  secrets  are  jealously 
guarded,  but  the  greater  part  of  their  art  is  pure  deception. 
Yet  they  are  to  a considerable  extent  the  victims  of  self-decep- 
tion themselves.  They  believe  that  there  are  other  wizards 
who  really  possess  some  powers  which  they  themselves  only 
profess. 

Although  there  are  many  who  claim  to  be  witch-doctors, 
yet  those  who  really  have  attained  to  some  distinction  in  the 

145 


K 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 

profession  are  not  very  numerous,  and  I have  only  met  a few 
really  clever  wizards.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe,  however, 
from  statements  of  their  own  and  of  others,  that  at  one 
time  the  witch-doctors  possessed  more  knowledge  than  they 
have  now. 

The  training  necessary  to  qualify  an  Indian  to  become  a 
witch-doctor  consists,  in  the  first  place,  in  severe  fastings,  and 
especially  in  abstention  from  fluid.  They  carry  this  fasting  to 
such  an  excess  as  to  affect  the  nervous  system  and  brain.  Certain 
herbs  are  eaten  to  hasten  this  stage.  They  pass  days  in  solitude, 
and,  when  thoroughly  worked  up  to  an  hysterical  condition,  they 
see  spirits  and  ghosts,  and  have  strange  visions.  It  is  necessary, 
furthermore,  that  they  should  eat  a few  live  toads  and  some 
kinds  of  snakes.  Certain  little  birds  are  plucked  alive  and  then 
devoured,  their  power  of  whistling  being  supposed  to  be  thus 
communicated  to  the  witch-doctor.  There  are  other  features 
in  the  preliminary  training  which  need  not  be  mentioned,  and 
when  the  initiatory  stage  has  been  satisfactorily  passed,  they 
are  instructed  in  the  mysteries  under  pledge  of  secrecy.  After 
that  their  future  depends  upon  themselves. 

It  is  unquestionable  that  a few  of  these  wizards  understand 
to  a slight  degree  the  power  of  hypnotism.  They  appear  at 
times  to  throw  themselves  into  a hypnotic  state  by  sitting  in  a 
strained  position  for  hours,  fixing  their  gaze  upon  some  distant 
object.  In  this  condition  they  are  believed  to  be  able  to  throw 
their  souls  out — that  is,  in  order  to  make  them  wander.  It 
seems  that  occasionally,  when  in  this  state,  they  see  visions 
which  are  quite  the  opposite  of  those  they  had  desired.  At 
other  times  they  content  themselves  with  concentrating  their 
attention  for  a while  upon  one  of  their  charms,  and  I have  no 
doubt  that  occasionally  they  are  sincere  in  desiring  to  solve 
some  perplexing  problems. 

One  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  wizard  is  to  arrange  the  weather 
to  suit  his  clansmen.  If  they  want  rain,  it  is  to  him  they  apply. 
His  sorceries  are  of  such  a kind  that  they  may  be  extended  over 
a long  period.  He  is  never  lacking  in  excuses,  and  so,  while 
apparently  busy  in  combating  the  opposing  forces  which  are 

146 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


hindering  the  rain,  he  gains  time  to  study  weather  signs.  He 
will  never  or  rarely  venture  an  opinion  as  to  the  expected  change 
until  he  is  nearly  certain  of  a satisfactory  result.  Any  other 
Indian  could  foretell  rain  were  he  to  observe  signs  as  closely  as 
does  the  wizard.  The  killing  of  a certain  kind  of  duck,  and  the 
sprinkling  of  its  blood  upwards,  is  his  chief  charm.  Whefl  he 
is  able  to  procure  this  bird  he  is  sure  that  rain  cannot  be  far  off, 
because  these  ducks  do  not  migrate  southwards  until  they  know 
that  there  is  going  to  be  water  in  the  swamps.  These  swamps 
are  filled  by  the  overflowing  of  the  rivers  as  much  as  by  the 
local  rainfalls,  and  the  presence  of  water  in  the  rivers  and 
swamps  soon  attracts  rain-clouds. 

The  wizards  also  observe  plants  and  animals,  study  the  sky, 
and  take  note  of  other  phenomena,  and  by  these  means  can 
arrive  at  fairly  safe  conclusions.  They  are  supposed  to  be  able 
to  foretell  events,  and  to  a certain  extent  they  succeed  so 
far  as  these  events  concern  local  interests.  By  judicious  ques- 
tioning and  observation  the  astute  wizard  is  able  to  judge  with 
some  amount  of  exactitude  how  certain  matters  are  likely  to 
turn  out. 

After  we  had  introduced  bullock-carts  into  their  country,  the 
people  were  naturally  interested  in  the  return  of  the  carts  from 
their  periodical  journeys  to  the  river.  When  the  wizards  had 
calculated  carefully  the  watering-places,  and  had  taken  into 
consideration  the  state  of  the  roads,  the  character  of  the  drivers, 
and  the  condition  and  number  of  the  bullocks,  all  that  they 
then  required  to  know  was  the  weight  of  the  loads,  and  the  day 
on  which  it  was  expected  that  the  carts  would  leave  the  river 
on  their  return  journey.  The  last  two  items  they  had  to  obtain 
from  us.  When  they  had  these  data,  by  a simple  calculation 
they  could  make  a very  shrewd  guess,  not  only  at  the  time  when 
they  might  be  expected  to  arrive  at  the  village,  but  also  at 
what  particular  part  of  the  road  they  might  happen  to  be  on 
any  given  day.  A great  impression  was  made  upon  the  simple 
people  by  this  exhibition  of  power,  but  when  we  discovered 
what  they  were  doing,  we  withheld  the  information,  or  only 
gave  them  part,  with  the  result  that  their  prophecies  either 

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WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


failed  ignominiouslv  or  proved  very  erroneous.  Their  reputation 
accordingly  began  to  wane. 

These  sorcerers  are  held  to  have  the  power  of  raising  storms. 
One  man  was  reported  to  have  been  the  author  of  very  disas- 
trous rains,  and  some  Indians  were  recounting  to  me  his  wonder- 
ful powers.  I asked  them  if  they  thought  that  it  was  really 
he  who  brought  about  the  torrential  rains,  and  they  un- 
hesitatingly answered  in  the  affirmative.  I then  remarked  that 
it  was  strange  that  this  very  witch-doctor  had  suffered  serious 
inconvenience  in  his  own  hut  from  this  rain,  and  that  further- 
more his  garden  was  practically  ruined.  “ Now,”  I said,  “ when 
he  engineered  that  storm,  why  did  he  not  arrange  that  it  should 
not  afflict  him  ?”  The  Indians  looked  surprised,  as  my  remark 
seemed  reasonable,  and  they  replied,  “ Nokso  ” (True).  “ We 
never  saw  it  in  that  light.” 

The  wizards  appear  to  be  authorities  on  agricultural  matters, 
and  when  application  to  the  garden  spirit  has  failed,  the  witch- 
doctor is  called  in.  He  examines  the  crop,  and  if  he  thinks  it 
is  likely  to  be  a poor  one,  he  says  it  is  being  blighted  by  an 
evil  spirit,  but  that  he  will  use  what  sorceries  he  can  to  preserve 
it.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  has  reason  to  believe  that  the 
crop  will  be  a good  one,  he  spits  upon  it  here  and  there,  and 
then  assures  the  people  that  now  they  may  expect  a good  harvest. 

Some  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  witch-doctor  consist  in  laying 
ghosts,  driving  off  spirits,  exorcising  kilyikhama  in  cases  of 
possession,  assisting  wandering  souls  back  to  their  bodies,  and 
generally  in  the  recognizing  of  spirits.  When  a ghost  is  sup- 
posed to  haunt  a village,  the  wizard  and  his  assistants  have 
sometimes  an  hour’s  arduous  chanting,  in  order  to  induce  the 
restless  one  to  leave.  When  he  considers  that  he  has  accom- 
plished this,  he  assures  the  people  that  it  is  done,  and  this 
quiets  their  fears.  Evil  spirits  frequenting  a neighbourhood 
have  also  to  be  driven  off  by  somewhat  similar  chanting. 

Persons,  when  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  kilyikhama,  some- 
times give  the  witch-doctor  really  serious  work  to  do,  and  in 
these  cases  he  is  as  full  of  fear  as  the  rest  of  the  people.  I have 
never  seen  a case  of  possession,  such  as  the  Indians  believe  in, 

148 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


or  one  at  all  resembling  the  supposed  cases  of  possession,  which 
are  said  to  be  met  with  in  China  ; but  I will  quote  an  ordinary 
case  with  which  I had  to  deal.  One  day  I heard  a great  uproar 
in  the  village.  On  inquiring  the  cause,  I was  informed  that  a 
woman  was  possessed  by  Jcilyikhama.  I went  to  the  scene  of 
the  disorder,  and  found  her  stretched  on  the  ground,  throwing 
herself  about  violently.  Four  men  were  holding  her  down  by 
the  limbs,  while  the  wizard  was  bending  over  her,  trying  to 
drive  out  the  spirits.  I at  once  saw  it  was  simply  a case  of 
hysteria.  Bidding  the  wizard  desist  from  his  performances,  and 
telling  the  people  that  I had  a potent  drug  which  would  very 
soon  restore  the  patient,  I returned  to  my  hut,  and  brought 
back  with  me  some  strong  liquid  ammonia.  As  soon  as  I 
applied  a liberal  dose  to  her  nose  on  a handkerchief,  the  effect 
was  instantaneous,  much  to  the  astonishment  of  the  people. 

A short  time  afterwards  the  wizard  sought  me  out  privately 
and  asked  me  to  give  him  some  of  that  wonderful  medicine.  I 
gave  him  a sniff  of  the  bottle  with  the  cork  right  out,  and  the 
effect  was  almost  more  marked  than  in  the  case  of  the  woman. 
He  was  nearly  overbalanced  from  the  shock.  I asked  him  if  he 
would  like  to  take  some  with  him,  but,  as  soon  as  he  could 
speak,  he  emphatically  declined.  I think  he  ceased  to  wonder 
why  the  spirits  left  the  woman  so  quickly. 

Dreamers  also  frequently  require  the  wizard’s  help,  especially 
when  the  wanderings  of  their  souls  have  been  interrupted  by 
unfriendly  spirits.  Having  to  deal  so  much  with  ghosts  and 
spirits,  he  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  recognize  their  presence  at 
all  times,  and  to  distinguish  and  describe  them  by  the  aid  of  the 
bright  metal  ear-discs  which  he  wears,  as  he  is  thought  to  be 
able  to  see  the  shadows  in  these  mirrors  as  they  pass. 

On  my  return  from  my  first  furlough,  I brought  out  a few 
hideous  masks  with  which  to  amuse  the  younger  boys.  At  first 
they  eyed  them  with  suspicion,  but  soon  took  to  them,  realizing 
what  an  amount  of  fun  they  could  get  out  of  them.  Shortly 
after  this  a very  famous  wizard  paid  a visit  to  the  village.  The 
lads,  who  had  attended  school  for  some  time,  and  had  lost  a 
good  deal  of  their  natural  fear  of  the  witch-doctors,  desired  to 

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WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


play  a prank  on  the  distinguished  visitor.  Dressing  themselves 
up,  and  wearing  the  masks,  they  hid  in  the  vicinity  of  our 
house.  Then  one  of  their  number,  in  ordinary  attire,  went  to 
the  village  and  informed  the  wizard  that  I wished  to  speak  to 
him.  He  came  down  unsuspectingly,  and  suddenly  encountered 
five  weird  masked  figures.  For  one  moment  he  was  paralyzed 
with  fear,  but  almost  in  the  next  he  was  back  in  the  village. 
Great  was  the  mirth  of  the  boys,  and  they  roguishly  remarked 
how  strange  it  was  that  the  wizard,  “ Blue  Blanket,”  an  expert 
at  recognizing  spirits,  should  be  so  terrified  when  he  met 
them. 

At  Thlagnasinkinmith  I built  a high  palm  fence  round  part 
of  my  hut  in  order  to  keep  out  the  dogs  while  I was  sun-drying 
meat.  I was  sitting  inside  this  enclosure  at  a fire  with  a 
number  of  men  conversing  on  diverse  topics,  and  chanced  to 
have  my  alarum-clock  with  me.  A young  witch-doctor,  having 
some  chanting  to  do,  coolly  came  and  stood  up  against  my 
fence  and  began  his  dismal  task.  I told  him  to  move  farther 
off,  as  it  interrupted  our  conversation,  but  he  paid  no  attention. 
I therefore  decided  to  remove  him  by  other  means,  and,  setting 
the  alarum  a few  minutes  ahead,  I slipped  it  unnoticed  behind 
the  fence.  His  chant  waxed  louder  and  more  vigorous,  when 
suddenly  off  went  the  alarum.  He  dropped  his  gourd,  and 
with  a cry  of  fear  ran  off  to  the  village. 

Some  of  the  methods  practised  by  the  wizards  are  gruesome 
and  revolting.  The  treatment  of  the  dead  will  be  dealt  with 
in  the  following  chapter,  but  there  are  many  other  occasions 
on  which  they  resort  to  practices  of  an  exceedingly  repulsive 
kind. 

In  certain  cases  of  sickness,  sucking  is  the  recognized  cure. 
By  long  practice  they  develop  a power  of  suction  which  is 
quite  surprising — in  fact,  it  amounts  to  much  the  same  as 
cupping.  If  an  Indian  spits  blood  owing  to  overstraining  him- 
self or  through  some  internal  injury,  he  is  always  in  fear  that  it 
mav  result  in  death.  For  want  of  skilful  medical  treatment 
such  cases  sometimes  end  fatally,  but  they  attribute  this  entirely 
to  the  haemorrhage,  of  which  they  have  an  inherent  dread. 

150 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 

The  wizards  make  capital  out  of  this,  and,  when  angry,  threaten 
the  people  that  they  will  cause  them  to  die  from  internal 
bleeding.  To  prove  his  power,  he  shows  how  he  can  produce 
this  bleeding  in  himself  at  will  without  any  harmful  effect,  but 
pictures  the  terrible  consequences  that  will  ensue  if  he  produces 
it  in  them. 

He  strikes  his  head  and  breast  several  times,  and,  looking 
diabolically  fierce,  he  throws  up  apparently  a mouthful  of  blood, 
which  he  catches  in  his  hand  and  rubs  upon  his  naked  chest. 
The  native  is  filled  with  terror  at  the  sight,  not  knowing  that  it 
is  but  a simple  trick.  The  witch-doctor  has  previously  secreted 
in  his  mouth  certain  forest  seeds,  and,  after  having  delivered  his 
oration,  as  if  exhausted  by  it,  he  calls  for  a drink  of  water, 
taking  care  to  retain  in  his  capacious  mouth  a fair  quantity. 
This  is  coloured  by  the  seeds,  and  the  contents,  when  spat  out, 
very  closely  resemble  frothy  blood. 

In  skin  eruptions,  such  as  small-pox,  measles,  and  the  like, 
they  open  the  pustules  with  a sharp-pointed  instrument,  not 
infrequently  a knife.  They  then  wipe  it  on  their  bare  arm  or 
leg,  and  have  no  scruple  in  using  the  same  instrument  imme- 
diately afterwards  in  cutting  their  food.  Is  it  any  wonder  that 
such  diseases  spread  so  rapidly  among  them  ? 

They  have  many  other  revolting  practices,  but  decency  for- 
bids the  mention  of  them.  It  is  utterly  impossible  to  give  an 
exhaustive  account  of  these  primitive  people,  as  so  many  of 
their  customs  are  unfit  for  discussion. 

Much  of  their  witchcraft  is  pure  trickery ; a few  of  them 
have  the  rudiments  of  the  conjuror’s  art,  although,  as  a rule, 
their  deceptions  are  very  clumsily  worked.  The  people  are  so 
credulous  and  unsuspicious  that  the  wizards  do  not  find  it 
necessary  to  acquire  any  great  skill. 

I was  once  told  by  the  Indians  that  a very  celebrated  wizard 
had  arrived.  They  recounted  many  of  his  wonderful  deeds,  one 
of  which  was  that  he  could,  by  striking  his  head,  produce  a 
number  of  small  creeping  things,  such  as  live  slugs,  caterpillars, 
and  beetles.  When  I doubted  their  statements,  they  solemnly 
assured  me  that  they  had  seen  it  done.  I said  : “ Well,  go  to 

151 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 

the  village  and  tell  him  to  come  to  me,  and  if  he  can  do  as  you 
say  I will  give  him  a handsome  present.”  Jealous  for  the 
reputation  of  their  wizard,  and  fully  believing  that  he  could  do 
what  they  had  described,  they  hastened  off*. 

I was  somewhat  surprised  to  see  him  appear.  I asked  him, 
before  the  crowd  which  had  eagerly  gathered  round  to  witness 
the  overthrow  of  my  scepticism,  if  he  could  perform  this  wonderful 
feat.  Without  hesitation  he  replied  in  the  affirmative,  and  I 
bade  him  proceed.  Striking  an  attitude,  he  smote  his  head 
two  or  three  times  with  one  hand,  with  the  other  compressing 
his  stomach  and  working  upwards.  He  then  put  his  hand  to 
his  mouth,  ejected  quite  openly  several  live  things  into  his 
palm,  and  held  them  out  for  us  to  see.  There  lay  the  creeping, 
wriggling  insects,  and  a look  of  triumph  was  clearly  distin- 
guishable upon  his  face.  The  onlookers  were  filled  with  mixed 
feelings  of  pleasure,  satisfaction,  and  fear.  All  looked  expec- 
tantly at  me.  Rising,  I clapped  him  on  the  back,  told  him  he 
was  a clever  fellow,  and  gave  him  the  present  I had  promised. 
He  was  delighted. 

I then  insisted  on  his  sharing  some  of  my  food,  which  he  did 
not  seem  too  keen  to  do ; but  I persisted,  and  in  the  midst  of 
the  admiring  throng  he  had  no  alternative  but  to  consent.  He 
took  a large  mouthful,  and  while  he  was  endeavouring  to 
masticate  the  food,  looking  at  him  straight  in  the  face,  I said 
presently  : “That  was  a clever  thing  you  did  just  now  ; you 
must  really  show  me  it  again but  he  only  turned  on  his  heel 
and  went  away.  It  was  plain  that  he  had  some  more  live 
insects  in  his  mouth,  and  they  had  evidently  become  mixed 
with  the  food.  He  would  have  had  to  swallow  it,  or  otherwise 
have  been  discourteous  to  me.  Swallowing  the  food  would 
have  meant  swallowing  the  insects  and  slugs  as  well,  so  he 
assumed  offended  dignity  and  strode  away. 

This  reminds  me  of  an  interview  I had  with  another  wizard. 
Curious  to  know  how  they  actually  did  their  tricks,  I feigned 
having  a pain  in  my  arm,  and  sent  for  old  “ Red  head.” 
Believing  me  to  be  in  earnest,  he  proceeded  to  spit  upon  and 
then  suck  my  arm.  After  a time  he  produced  three  small  fish- 

152 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


bones,  and,  showing  them  to  me  and  those  around,  asserted  that 
these  were  the  cause  of  my  trouble,  adding  that  they  had  been 
caused  to  enter  there  by  some  unfriendly  wizard  who  disliked 
me.  “ They  are  not  nice  people  in  the  west,”  he  said.  “ Quite 
different  from  us,  who  love  you  and  are  your  friends.”  He 
then  asked  for  a handful  of  beads  as  his  fee.  Taking  him  rather 
unawares,  I examined  his  mouth.  He  did  not  seem  to  realize 
at  first  what  I was  after ; but  as  I pulled  out  a few  more  fish- 
bones, his  face  lowered,  and  began  to  wear  a threatening  look. 

I simply  showed  the  bones  to  the  onlookers,  and  this,  with  a 
look,  conveyed  all  that  was  required  ; but  that  witch-doctor 
hated  me  for  several  years  afterwards. 

We  find  many  specialists  in  the  profession.  One  witch- 
doctor of  my  acquaintance  practised  as  his  speciality  the  extrac- 
tion of  small  needles  from  afflicted  Indians.  This,  of  course, 
was  the  result  of  contact  with  foreigners,  and  shows  that  Indian 
witchcraft  is  not  too  rigidly  conservative,  but  advances  with  the 
times.  This  adaptability,  however,  to  changed  circumstances 
often  gives  rise  to  serious  difficulties.  Foreign  bodies  are 
extracted  by  the  wizards,  but  when,  for  purposes  of  their  own, 
they  desire  to  afflict  their  victims  with  the  presence  in  their 
bodies  of  such  things  as  beetles,  fish-bones,  etc.,  they  can  only 
do  so  through  the  aid  of  the  kUyikhama.  The  insertion  of 
needles  (made  in  England)  was  quite  a new  development' of 
' wizardry,  and  the  question  which  naturally  arose  was  how  this 
wizard  prevailed  upon  the  Tcilyikhama  to  adopt  such  a new 
method  of  inflicting  suffering.  I don’t  suppose,  however,  that 
he  troubled  much  about  the  matter,  and  his  credulous  fellow- 
I countrymen  evidently  raised  no  critical  questions.  They 
i suffered  pain  ; he  extracted  needles.  The  cause  and  effect 
were  plain.  What  need  was  there  for  further  argument  or 
speculation  ? 

We  had  remarked  for  some  time  that  this  particular  wizard 
frequently  requested  us,  as  a personal  favour,  to  obtain  for 
him  several  packets  of  the  smallest  needles  obtainable.  He 
was  an  ingenious  fellow  to  have  invented  this  new  line  of 
business,  but  our  suspicions  were  aroused.'  What  possible  use 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


could  an  Indian  have  for  such  very  small  needles  ? These 
suspicions  were  strengthened  when,  shortly  afterwards,  a new 
epidemic,  as  it  were,  broke  out  among  the  people.  “ Needles  ” 
became  the  fashionable  disease.  But  we  detei'mined  to  stamp 
it  out.  The  supply  of  needles  was  cut  off,  and,  as  no  more 
were  obtainable,  the  malady  ceased,  and  the  wizard’s  lucrative 
occupation  with  it. 

As  witchcraft  had  such  a hold  upon  the  people,  and  as  its 
influence  was  unmistakably  evil,  we  set  ourselves  to  oppose  it. 
Mere  theoretical  opposition  to  this  evil  had  no  effect ; it  required 
practical  exposure,  and  this  I accomplished  whenever  an  oppor- 
tunity occurred,  but  I must  confess  that  my  experiments  were 
not  always  a success. 

There  is  a root,  about  the  size  of  a large  apple,  found  in  the 
forests,  which  is  supposed  by  the  natives  to  be  a virulent  poison, 
and  to  cause  almost  instant  death.  But  the  wizards  are  credited 
with  the  faculty  of  eating  it  with  impunity.  Old  “ Red  head  ” 
was  one  of  those  reputed  to  be  able  to  eat  this  deadly  root,  so  I 
demanded  proof  of  his  power.  The  root  was  brought  and 
handed  to  me.  I passed  it  round  to  the  Indians  present  and 
requested  them  to  eat  a bit,  but  no  one  would  do  so.  Further- 
more, they  scoffed  at  me  for  imagining  that  they  would  be  so 
foolish  as  to  try.  I then  handed  it  to  “ Red  head.”  He 
instantly  took  a large  bite  without  a qualm,  chewed,  and 
swallowed  it,  the  Indians  looking  on  with  interested  awe.  I 
then  took  it  from  him,  and,  after  reasoning  with  myself,  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  what  he  could  eat  with  impunity  I could 
eat  also.  However,  there  was  just  the  possibility  that  it  might 
be  poisonous,  and  that  he  possessed  an  antidote.  I therefore 
scanned  his  face  keenly  while  I prepared  to  take  a bite  also. 
Had  he  thought  that  it  was  really  deadly,  he  would  have  shown 
signs  of  alarm,  for  I knew  full  well  at  that  time  that  it  was  not 
convenient  to  the  Indians  that  I should  die  under  such  circum- 
stances. But  I saw  no  such  sign,  nor  even  a trace  of  jealous 
apprehension.  I therefore  ate  a piece.  No  evil  effects  followed, 
beyond  the  disagreeable  flavour  of  the  root,  and  no  sign  of 
annoyance  even  was  evinced  by  the  wizard,  such  as  he  certainly 

154 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


would  have  shown  had  he  feared  that  my  action  would  damage 
his  reputation. 

I was  surprised  at  this,  but  later,  in  the  presence  of  a number 
of  Indians,  I referred  to  the  incident,  and  said  : “You  have  all 
feared  this  root,  and  have  believed  that  only  a witch-doctor 
could  eat  of  it,  and  not  die  ; but  you  saw  me  eat  it,  and  no 
harm  has  come  of  it.”  I thought  I had  scored  a great  point, 
but  old  “ Red  head,”  who  was  present,  quietly  said  : “We  were 
not  surprised,  because  you  yourself  are  a witch-doctor.”  I had 
always  refused  to  be  considered  as  such,  but,  unfortunately,  my 
good  intention  had  simply  confirmed  the  popular  belief.  I con- 
fess that  I was  chagrined,  so  I made  up  my  mind  to  take  the  first 
opportunity  to  aim  a telling  blow  at  witchcraft. 

About  this  time  there  was  a rumour  of  trouble  being  likely  to 
arise  between  the  Indians  and  the  Paraguayans,  but  a witch- 
doctor had  given  out  that  his  people  need  not  be  afraid,  as  he 
had  power  to  charm  the  guns  of  the  Paraguayans,  so  that  their 
bullets  could  not  wound.  I warned  them  that  this  statement 
was  not  to  be  relied  upon,  and  that  if  they  came  into  collision 
with  the  Paraguayans,  they  would  certainly  find  that  their 
bullets  would  kill.  But  they  seemed  to  have  implicit  faith  in 
their  wizard’s  statement. 

In  order  to  prevent  them  from  being  led  foolishly  into  danger, 
and  still  smarting  under  my  late  defeat,  I told  them  that  I 
should  like  to  test  the  witch-doctor’s  assertion  for  myself.  He 
came  and  assured  me  that  his  charm  would  prove  quite  efficacious. 
I then  turned  to  the  Indians  and  said,  “ He  believes  in  his  power  : 
let  him  prove  it.  Make  him  stand  over  yonder,  and  I will  fire 
at  him  three  times  with  my  Winchester.  He  can  charm  bullets, 
and  therefore  can  come  to  no  harm,  and  you  then  will  be  assured 
that  when  you  meet  the  Paraguayans,  you  will  be  safe.”  But 
my  wizard  would  have  none  of  it,  and  the  people  on  this 
occasion  were  sensible  enough  to  consider  prudence  the  better 
part  of  valour. 

On  another  occasion,  at  the  same  village,  while  we  were  sitting 
round  a fire  in  a hut  with  a number  of  Indians,  a witch-beetle 
came  humming  in.  These  witch-beetles  are  supposed  to  be  sent 

165 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


by  the  witch-doctors  to  enter  those  whom  they  desire  to  destroy. 
These  particular  creatures  are  about  an  inch  and  a half  in  length, 
black,  and  horned.  In  this  case  it  was  believed  to  be  either 
intending  to  enter  one  of  this  party  or  on  its  way  in  search  of 
a victim  farther  off.  A hush  fell  upon  the  company,  and  fear 
possessed  them  all.  After  some  difficulty  I captured  it.  Holding 
it  in  my  hand,  to  the  horror  of  all,  I placed  it  alive  in  my  mouth, 
and  closed  my  lips  upon  it.  After  a time  I took  it  out  and 
threw  it  away,  triumphantly  assuring  the  people  that  if  it  really 
had  the  power  attributed  to  it,  I had  supplied  it  with  a ready- 
made opening  by  which  to  enter. 

But  they  would  not  be  satisfied.  They  made  two  objections. 
The  first  was,  of  course,  that  I was  a witch-doctor,  and  therefore 
knew  how  to  charm  it.  The  second  was  that  it  probably  did 
not  want  to  enter  me,  its  objective  being  another  person 
altogether.  When  told  that  even  if  such  had  been  the  case, 
the  power  of  the  witch-doctor  and  his  associate  kilyikhama 
could  at  least  have  saved  it  from  this  indignity,  they  seemed 
unwilling  to  admit  this,  one  remarking  that  it  might  be  that 
their  kilyikhama  had  no  power  over  me. 

This  reminds  me  of  an  incident  at  Waikthlatingmangyalwa, 
our  first  Mission-station.  A party  of  visitors  arrived  late  at 
night,  and,  it  being  the  dry  season,  they  were  extremely  thirsty. 
They  asked  me  to  give  them  water,  but  I told  them  that  I had 
only  sufficient  for  my  own  use  in  the  house,  so  I offered  them  a 
bucket  and  told  them  where  they  could  get  water  some  little 
distance  off.  They  demux-red,  and  told  me  they  could  not  go, 
as  it  was  known  that  at  night  spirits  frequented  that  spot.  I 
offered  to  go  with  them.  My  reputatioxx  as  a spirit-scarer  by 
this  time  was  considerable,  and  they  gladly  accompanied  me. 
We  obtained  the  water  and  returned,  of  course  without  seeing 
axxy  sign  of  a spix-it.  Anxious  to  impx-ove  the  opportunity,  I 
x-emarked  upon  the  groundlessness  of  their  feai-s,  but  they 
replied,  “ With  you  it  is  different,  and  you  must  xxot  think  that 
because  the  kilyikhama  in  your  country  ax-e  tame,  that  here  they 
are  so  also.  Our  spirits  are  fierce  and  dangerous.'”  Again  I 
failed  to  score  axx  advantage. 


15G 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 

Some  considerable  time  after  this  I heard  from  the  lads  a 
story  to  the  effect  that  their  wizards  could,  in  the  presence  of  a 
crowd  of  people,  spit  pumpkin  seeds  out  of  their  mouths  to  a 
distance,  and  immediately  full-grown  ripe  pumpkins  could  be 
picked  up.  I did  not  attempt  at  this  time  to  explain  the  trick, 
but  endeavoured  to  make  them  think  for  themselves  by  putting 
the  following  questions  : “ Why  is  it  that  your  people,  who 
often  suffer  from  hunger,  do  not  insist  upon  your  witch-doctors 
providing  for  your  immediate  needs  in  the  way  you  have  just 
described  ; and  still  more,  how  is  it  that  they  themselves  suffer 
equally  with  you  the  pinch  of  hunger,  when  they  could  so  easily 
improvise  a substantial  meal  ? Does  it  not  appear  to  be  power 
misused,  merely  to  work  this  miracle  now  and  again  to  prove 
what  they  could  do  if  they  would  ?”  This  remark,  being 
thoroughly  practical,  and  affecting  them  on  a very  tender 
subject,  made  considerable  impression  upon  them. 

The  trick  is  of  the  simplest.  The  witch-doctor’s  assistants 
have  a few  pumpkins  secreted  beneath  their  blankets.  The 
attention  of  the  crowd  is,  of  course,  fixed  upon  the  performing 
wizard,  and  when  he  spits  out  the  seeds,  which  of  course  are 
never  seen  again,  being  lost  in  the  dirt  and  refuse  which  is 
always  to  be  found  in  abundance  in  the  vicinity  of  their  shelters, 
the  crowd  at  once  begin  to  look  on  the  ground  for  the  expected 
pumpkins,  which  are  presently  discovered,  having  been  dropped 
by  the  confederates,  who  had  intermingled  with  the  people. 

I thought  one  day  that  if  I did  a little  simple  jugglery 
myself,  and  then  explained  to  the  people  how  it  was  done,  and 
could  induce  some  of  them  to  do  these  tricks  themselves,  it 
might  bring  home  to  them  more  clearly  than  by  any  other 
means  the  way  in  which  they  were  being  duped.  Getting 
together  a good  audience,  I performed  for  their  benefit  a number 
of  conjuring  tricks,  most  of  them  being  imitations  of  those  of 
their  own  wizards.  But  the  one  which  seemed  to  impress  them 
most  was  the  extraction  from  a dog’s  tail  of  a piece  of  paper 
after  he  had  eaten  it.  Wrapping  up  a piece  of  fat  in  a bit  of 
paper,  I gave  it  to  a dog,  which  eagerly  devoured  it,  paper  and 
all,  and  then,  working  with  my  hand  along  his  stomach,  I sucked 


WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


the  paper  out  of  the  tip  of  his  tail,  and  showed  it  to  them. 
“ A-po-pai  !”  cried  the  onlookers  in  chorus,  unable  to  restrain 
their  astonishment.  The  trick  was  an  easy  one,  which  I after- 
wards explained  to  them.  Tearing  out  two  leaves  of  cigarette 
paper,  I secreted  one  in  my  mouth,  wrapping  the  fat  in  the  other. 

Adolpho  Henricksen,  the  founder  of  this  Anglican  Chaco 
Mission,  died  from  the  consequences  of  exposure  on  the  River 
Paraguay,  but  I was  informed  once  by  the  Indians,  when  they 
were  incensed  against  me,  that  I had  better  be  careful,  because 
their  witch-doctors  had  killed  him  by  their  sorceries.  Taking 
them  at  their  word,  I demanded  and  obtained  compensation  all 
round  for  the  injury  done  to  my  tribesman.  For  a long  time 
afterwards  they  still  maintained  that  he  had  been  killed  by 
witchcraft,  but,  not  caring  to  be  again  fined,  the  witch-doctors 
ingeniously  denied  having  done  this  themselves,  and  attributed 
the  deed  to  the  wizards  of  the  Caingua,  a tribe  in  the  north  of 
Paraguay  proper,  thus  maintaining  the  reputation  of  witchcraft 
and  at  the  same  time  guarding  themselves  against  further 
punishment. 

About  the  time  when  we  first  succeeded  in  taking  a bullock- 
cart  into  the  interior,  the  witch-doctors,  it  appears,  had  decided 
to  get  rid  of  me.  According  to  my  informants,  they  feared  to 
lay  violent  hands  upon  me,  judging  that  the  presence  of  my 
enraged  spirit  in  their  country  would  be  more  troublesome  to 
them  than  I actually  was  in  the  body.  Their  plan,  therefore, 
was  to  put  me  to  death  by  a slow,  painful  illness,  which  would 
cause  me  to  grow  thinner  and  thinner,  and  for  this  purpose  they 
had  been  engaged  with  their  sorceries,  so  I was  told,  for  fully 
two  months.  Old  Pinse-apawa  was  my  informant,  and  he  urged 
me  not  to  risk  my  life  by  going  inland  with  the  cart.  However, 
when  he  found  that  I was  determined  to  go,  he  said  : “ Do  not 
tell  the  witch-doctors  that  I informed  you  of  what  they  are 
doing,  but  say  that  a spirit  warned  you.” 

I arrived  safely  with  the  cart,  after  encountering  many 
difficulties.  I did  not  deem  it  wise  to  make  any  reference  to 
what  I had  heard,  but  could  not  resist  the  temptation  of  making 
a few  remarks  which  I knew  would  be  exceedingly  irritating  and 

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WIZARDS  AND  WITCHCRAFT 


discouraging  to  my  would-be  murderers.  So,  shortly  after  my 
arrival,  I laid  myself  out  to  expatiate  upon  the  great  advantages 
that  we  should  derive  now  that  we  had  proved  the  practicability 
of  bringing  in  provisions  by  bullock-cart.  My  colleague, 
Andrew  Pride,  and  myself,  had  often  been  very  short  of  food, 
and  on  account  of  this  we  were  thinner  than  we  cared  to  be. 
“ But  now,”  I said  triumphantly,  “ you  will  soon  see  in  what 
fine  condition  wre  shall  be.”  I heard  afterwards  that  the  wizards 
did  not  enjoy  this  and  other  such  remarks. 

In  spite  of  all  the  superstition  and  trickery  connected  with 
witchcraft,  the  wizards  possess  a certain  amount  of  practical 
knowledge,  and  really  make  use  of  it.  They  know  of  many 
herbs  which  they  employ  as  medicines.  Unfortunately,  some  of 
them  are  utilized  for  improper  purposes,  but  others  are  used 
advisedly  to  relieve  suffering.  The  bitter  bark  of  a tree  is 
known  to  allay  fever.  The  malva,  or  mallow  plant,  is  used  in 
; cleansing  wounds,  and  so  are  other  herbs.  They  have  also  a 
plant  which  relieves  toothache,  and  others  of  less  or  greater 
efficacy  are  used  in  specific  diseases.  Snake-bite  they  often 
succeed  in  curing,  chiefly  by  suction  and  by  tying  a ligature 
between  the  wound  and  the  heart.  They  also  have  some  idea 
of  inoculation  for  snake-bite,  using  the  fangs  very  carefully  in 
scratching  parts  of  their  bodies.  They  practise  massage  with 
considerable  success.  Saliva  is  freely  used  on  wounds,  and  to 
stop  bleeding  they  apply  clay  or  earth.  They  are  very  accurate 
in  calculating  the  probabilities  of  recovery  or  death,  judging 
principally  from  the  appearance  of  the  eyes. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  these  witch-doctors  have  much  more 
medical  knowledge  than  they  are  generally  credited  with,  and 
this  incredulity  as  to  their  knowledge  is  owing,  I think,  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  so  mixed  up  with  superstition.  But  it  would 
require  a medical  man  to  study  their  methods,  in  order  to 
estimate  the  real  extent  of  their  knowledge. 


159 


CHAPTER  XVI 
BURIAL  RITES 


Undoubtedly  the  most  gruesome  of  all  Indian  customs  are  those 
connected  with  the  burial  of  their  dead. 

The  foreigner  when  he  finds  himself  alone  amongst  these 
Indian  tribes,  naturally  braces  himself  up  in  the  face  of  imminent 
peril ; but  it  is  quite  another  matter  when  he  happens  to  have 
the  doubtful  privilege  of  witnessing  an  Indian  funeral,  with  all 
the  horrible  rites  and  weird  circumstances  that  invest  it. 

A death  has  taken  place ; the  sun  is  fast  sinking  on  the 
horizon.  The  village,  which  at  noon  was  stirring  with  life  and 
energy,  is  now  desolate,  save  for  six  or  seven  solemn  and  awe- 
struck Indians,  who  have  been  deputed  to  carry  out  the  last 
dismal  rites.  The  body  lies  just  outside  one  of  the  huts,  covered 
with  a reed  mat.  Presently  two  men  approach,  and,  removing 
the  matting,  they  hastily  wrap  the  body  in  a native  blanket. 
Then,  laying  it  face  downwards,  they  lash  a pole  along  the  back, 
tying  it  at  the  neck  and  heels.  Raising  their  gruesome  burden 
upon  their  shoulders,  in  strange  procession  they  wend  their  way 
to  the  forest  in  the  fast  fading  light. 

A grave  is  hastily  dug  with  wooden  diggers,  and  the  body, 
loosened  from  the  pole,  is  forced  into  a sitting  posture  inside. 
Haste  is  necessary,  for  the  sun  has  already  disappeared,  and, 
according  to  their  laws,  the  funeral  ceremony  must  be  concluded 
before  the  red  glow  has  died  out  of  the  sky,  and  they  have  still 
the  last  rites  to  perform. 

A scene,  weird  and  revolting  as  this,  I have  witnessed  on 
several  occasions,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  describe  to  the  reader  the 
uncanny  feelings  which  it  awakens. 

160 


BURIAL  RITES 


Death  is  invariably  supposed  by  the  Indian  to  result  from 
the  direct  influence  of  the  kilyikhama,  either  proceeding  from 
their  own  desire  to  injure,  or  induced  through  the  medium  of 
a witch-doctor.  He,  of  course,  never  injures,  or,  at  least,  is 
believed  never  to  injure  any  one  of  his  own  party,  his  business 
being,  on  the  contrary,  to  secure  them  from  evil.  Anything, 
therefore,  in  the  nature  of  sickness  or  death  occurring  in  his 
own  district  is  held  to  be  either  the  direct  act  of  the  kilyikhama 
or  of  some  unfriendly  wizard  from  a distance. 

I The  vai’ious  ways  in  which  sickness  and  death  are  supposed 
to  be  caused  have  been  already  described  under  the  head  of 
witchcraft.  When  death  ensues,  the  business  of  the  wizard  is 
simply  to  decide  in  what  part  of  the  body  the  cause  of  death  is 
located,  and  this  determines  the  special  rites  to  be  carried  out  at 
burial.  As  long  as  there  is  hope  of  recovery,  the  wizard  and  the 
friends  show  great  kindness  to  the  sufferer,  and  do  all  that  they 
can  for  him,  and  I have  frequently  noticed  instances  of  very 
careful  and  tender  nursing  as  far  as  their  limited  knowledge 
went.  But  when  once  the  hope  of  life  has  been  extinguished, 
both  sufferer,  wizard,  and  friends  give  up  the  struggle.  The 
patient  is  then  to  a great  extent  regarded  as  practically  dead, 
and  little  further  attention  is  paid  to  him. 

When  death  seems  imminent,  the  dying  person  is  removed 
from  the  village  and  laid  outside,  with  a mat  thrown  over  him, 
although  he  may  be  quite  conscious.  They  think  nothing  of 
his  discomfort  at  this  time.  The  hot  noonday  sun  may  be 
pouring  down  upon  him,  aggravating  his  suffering,  or  tropical 
rain  may  be  falling,  or  perhaps  the  cold  south  wind  of  winter 
chilling  him,  but  it  matters  not.  Quite  close  to  him  prepara- 
tions are  being  made  for  a hasty  departure.  He  sees  them,  and 
very  often  hears  the  discussions  as  to  how  they  intend  to  treat 
him.  This  state  of  consciousness  continues  sometimes  up  to 
actual  burial.  Can  the  reader  imagine  what  must  be  the  feelings 
of  this  poor  deserted  creature  ? No  kindly  word  is  spoken  to 
him,  no  friendly  hand  holds  his,  though  he  is  still  living,  still 
conscious.  Oftentimes  he  suffers  the  agonies  of  thirst,  but  no 
one  attends  to  his  needs.  And  yet  these  Indians  are  not 

161 


BURIAL  RITES 


unkindly  ; they  grieve  for  their  dying  friend  ; they  will  miss  him 
and  mourn  his  loss,  but  their  cruel  belief  overcomes  all  natural 
feelings.  This  has  been  their  system  for  generations,  and  no 
one  has  cared  to  teach  them  a better  way. 

When  the  village  has  been  abandoned,  those  appointed  to 
attend  to  the  funeral  rites  wait  till  the  last  possible  moment— 
that  is,  about  half  an  hour  before  sunset — unless  the  sufferer  has 
actually  died  sooner.  But  whether  he  is  dead  or  not,  if  there 
is  no  possible  hope  of  his  living  through  the  night,  his  funeral 
begins,  in  order  that  it  may  be  completed  before  darkness 
sets  in. 

The  rites  to  be  performed  alter  according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  death,  but  there  is  never  any  variation  in  the  purifi- 
cation ceremony,  the  words  at  the  graveside,  the  plants  laid 
thereon,  and  the  position  of  the  body  in  the  grave.  The  burn- 
ing of  the  village  and  the  destruction  of  the  property  of  the 
deceased  are  always  customary. 

In  some  cases  the  only  peculiar  rite  is  the  placing  of  hot 
embers  beneath  the  feet  of  the  corpse  and  on  the  head.  If, 
however,  the  seat  of  trouble  has  been  in  the  head,  after  the  body 
has  been  placed  in  the  grave  they  batter  the  skull  with  clubs ; 
if  in  the  region  of  the  heart,  arrows  are  shot  into  it,  and  some- 
times a stake  is  driven  through  the  shoulder  and  slanting  out 
below  the  ribs,  thus  pinning  the  body  to  the  side  of  the  grave. 
In  the  case  of  dropsy,  the  body  is  shot  at,  and  a bunch  of 
herbs  is  held  by  the  man  conducting  the  burial.  This  is 
afterwards  burnt,  and  each  of  the  party  swallows  some  of  the 
smoke. 

The  meaning  of  these  and  many  more  rites  which  are  used 
I do  not  fully  comprehend,  and  I have  had  opportunities  of 
witnessing  only  some  of  them.  A very  common  rite,  however, 
is  the  cutting  open  of  the  side,  and  the  insertion  into  the  wound 
thus  made  of  heated  stones,  an  armadillo’s  claw,  some  dog’s 
bones,  and  occasionally  red  ants.  The  wound  is  then  closed.  In 
cases  where  haste  is  necessary,  as  it  always  is  if  the  funeral  takes 
place  towards  sunset,  the  sick  person  is  not  always  dead  when 
this  operation  is  performed.  In  any  case,  to  be  efficacious,  it 

162 


BURIAL  RITES 


must  be  performed,  if  not  before  actual  death,  certainly  im- 
mediately afterwards,  and  before  the  spirit  is  supposed  to  have 
left  the  vicinity  of  the  body. 

The  stones  are  thought  to  have  knowledge  communicated  to 
them  by  the  soul  of  the  dying  or  dead  person,  who,  being  freed 
from  the  limitations  of  the  body,  is  able  to  recognize  more 
clearly  the  originator  of  his  trouble.  They  are  supposed  to 
ascend  into  the  Milky  Way,  and  there  remain  until  they  find  an 
opportunity  to  descend  on  the  author  of  the  evil  in  the  form  of 
shooting  stars.  Consequently,  the  Indians  are  very  frightened 
when  they  see  a falling  star.  They  have  all  been  guilty  in  their 
time,  or  are  supposed  to  have  been  guilty,  of  causing  some 
evil  to  others,  and  they  are  never  sure  when  vengeance  in  this 
form  may  be  wreaked  on  them  from  some  distant  quarter. 
Dobrizhoffer,  writing  of  the  Abipones,  says  : “ Whenever  they 
see  a fiery  meteor,  or  hear  it  thunder  three  or  four  times,  they 
believe  that  one  of  their  jugglers  is  dead,  and  that  this  thunder 
and  lightning  are  his  funeral  obsequies.”  In  all  probability 
the  idea  of  the  Abipones  was  identical  with  that  of  the  Lenguas 
of  the  present  day.  The  armadillo’s  claw  is  supposed  to  burrow 
under  the  ground  until  it  finds  the  culpable  wizard,  then  to 
enter  into  and  destroy  him.  Thus  he  is  believed  to  be  attacked 
at  the  same  time  from  above  and  below.  The  particular  parts 
played  by  the  dog’s  bones  and  the  red  ants  I cannot  interpret. 

These  rites  having  been  performed,  the  body  is  placed  in  the 
grave  in  a sitting  posture,  with  the  face  towards  the  west. 
Probably  this  has  some  connection  with  their  idea  that  the 
future  home  of  their  people  lies  towards  the  West,  in  the  cities 
of  their  dead — a fact  which  has  already  been  touched  on  in 
dealing  with  their  possible  origin.  This  custom  seems  to  give 
weight  to  their  traditional  idea  of  the  Western  abode  of  their 
dead,  just  as  Christians  generally  place  their  dead  facing  the 
East,  as  symbolizing  the  quarter  from  which  they  look  for  their 
Hope  to  come.  When  the  grave  has  been  filled  with  earth, 
certain  plants,  some  being  of  the  aloe  species,  are  placed  above 
it,  and  then  those  who  are  officiating  stand  round  the  grave. 
The  leader  points  with  his  finger  to  each  one,  and  apparently 

1G3 


BURIAL  RITES 


asks  a question,  and  the  others  reply  ; but  I was  never  able  to 
catch  what  was  said,  nor  could  I ever  get  an  explanation. 

The  only  incident  tending  to  throw  light  on  the  subject,  and 
which  seems  to  have  any  reference  to  this  ceremony,  concerned 
an  Indian  who  had  been  present  at  the  burial  of  a woman. 
Some  time  afterwards,  having  a quarrel  with  her  relations,  he  is 
reported  to  have  said  that  he  had  seen  their  sister,  and  for  this 
they  killed  him  ; nor  was  it  accounted  as  murder.  I could  get 
no  clear  explanation  from  the  bearers  of  this  story  why  this 
man’s  remark  should  have  given  so  much  offence,  and  brought 
him  to  such  a tragic  end.  All  that  I could  gather  was  that  the 
man,  who  knew  the  woman  was  dead,  and  had  been  present  at 
her  funeral,  was  thought,  by  making  this  statement,  to  throw 
doubt  upon  her  death  and  burial,  and,  from  other  hints  which 
I have  received,  the  incident  seems  to  have  been  connected  with 
the  form  of  words  used  at  the  grave.  The  leader  of  the  burial 
party,  I think,  takes  a statement  from  each  of  those  present 
that  the  funeral  has  been  conducted  properly,  that  all  the  rites 
have  been  duly  performed,  and  that  they  are  direct  witnesses  that 
every  detail  that  their  customs  demand  has  been  fully  carried 
out.  Any  tampering,  therefore,  with  their  laws  on  these  matters 
was  followed  by  condign  punishment,  as  in  the  case  of  this  man, 
who  had  probably  insinuated  that  the  native  rites  had  not  been 
fully  complied  with. 

The  following  perilous  experience,  which  I met  with  in  the 
year  1894,  while  alone  amongst  the  Indians  in  the  interior  of 
the  Chaco,  at  the  village  of  Thlagwakhe,  may  perhaps  throw 
some  light  upon  this  oath-taking,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  at  the 
graveside.  An  old  man,  Ataiwanam,  had  been  dying  for  some 
days,  and  eventually  expired  one  afternoon.  By  this  time  I had 
gained  considerable  authority  among  the  people,  as  events  will 
show.  It  was  just  a few  months  after  I had  been  successful  in 
saving  a child  from  being  buried  alive.  The  Indians  invited  me 
to  form  one  of  the  burial  party  at  the  old  man’s  funeral — an 
invitation  denoting  great  confidence  and  respect — which  I 
accepted.  The  funeral  was  carried  out  in  the  ordinary  way, 
without  any  peculiar  atrocities ; but  I was  permitted  to  have 

164 


BURIAL  RITES 


my  way  in  respect  to  the  size  of  the  grave,  which  I insisted 
upon  their  making  larger  than  usual,  in  order  to  avoid  such 
unseemliness  as  crushing  forwai'd  the  head  of  the  corpse  and 
breaking  the  neck.  They  furthermore  requested  me  to  say 
some  words.  They  neither  expected  nor  wanted  a Christian 
address  or  prayer,  but  they  had  an  idea  that  I had  a powerful 
influence  with  spirits,  and  a word-charm  from  me  might,  they 
thought,  add  weight  and  efficacy  to  their  own  ceremonies. 
Being  anxious  to  take  every  possible  opportunity  of  introducing 
Christian  ideas  among  them,  I readily  agreed.  My  Lengua 
was  far  from  clear,  as  my  knowledge  of  their  language  was  at 
that  time  very  rudimentary.  Being  in  an  excited  condition, 
and  the  light  rapidly  fading,  they  were  in  great  haste  to  be  off, 
and  therefore  were  in  no  fit  frame  of  mind  to  follow  my  remarks. 

So  all  went  well  for  the  time,  and  we  returned  to  the  village. 
I had  already  extorted  a promise  from  them  that  they  would 
not  destroy  and  vacate  this  village,  as  was  their  wont,  and  had 
assured  them  that  no  harm  would  come  to  them.  Further- 
more, I had  dissuaded  them  from  killing  the  four  goats  belonging 
to  the  old  man,  although  they  destroyed  his  other  property. 
The  plan  by  which  I had  contrived  to  save  the  goats  was  by 
offering  to  exchange  them  for  four  of  my  own.  His  niece 
therefore  received  four  goats  from  me ; and  I assured  them  that, 
if  the  spirit  of  the  dead  man  should  resent  this  liberty  that  we 
had  taken  with  his  property,  the  trouble  would  fall  upon  me, 
and  not  on  them. 

The  people  had  built  their  shelters  on  the  forest  side  of  my 
hut,  but,  although  they  had  promised  not  to  destroy  the  village 
nor  vacate  it,  they  had  taken  the  precaution  to  pull  down  their 
booths  and  re-erect  them  on  the  farther  side  of  my  hut,  so 
that,  whatever  happened,  I,  at  any  rate,  should  be  between 
them  and  the  ghost,  and  therefore  be  the  first  to  suffer. 

The  witch-doctor,  the  most  intelligent  man  of  the  party,  had, 
a week  or  two  previously,  under  strong  persuasion  from  me, 
erected  for  himself  quite  a superior  kind  of  hut,  with  a small 
opening  for  a door.  His  wife  and  family,  however,  although 
they  did  not  remove  the  hut,  made  very  considerable  alterations 


BURIAL  RITES 


to  it,  the  chief  of  which  was  that  they  securely  blocked  up  the 
doorway,  making  it  appear  like  a part  of  the  wall,  and  opened 
a small  gap  on  the  opposite  side  instead.  As  the  old  wizard 
afterwards  explained  to  me,  this  was  done  on  purpose  to  puzzle 
the  ghost.  He,  while  in  the  body,  knew  the  house  well,  but  the 
alterations  were  so  considerable  that  it  was  supposed  his  ghost 
would  not  recognize  it,  and  would  be  especially  nonplussed  when 
it  made  for  the  entrance  to  find  it  a solid  wall. 

The  village  was  particularly  quiet  that  night.  This  was  the 
first  time  in  their  history  that  they  had  ventured  to  remain  in 
the  same  place  after  a death  had  occurred,  and  they  naturally 
felt  intensely  nervous  — in  fact,  they  hardly  dared  to  speak 
above  a whisper.  I remained  up  till  about  ten  o’clock,  but, 
finding  things  rather  dull,  I then  retired  to  rest. 

It  must  have  been  an  hour  or  so  after  midnight,  when  I was 
awakened  by  a terrible  hubbub  amongst  the  people.  The  few 
guns  they  had  were  being  fired  off,  arrows  were  whizzing  through 
the  air,  women  were  shrieking  and  beating  on  the  ground  with 
sticks,  children  crying,  dogs  barking,  and  goats  and  sheep  run- 
ning hither  and  thither.  I wondered  what  could  be  the  matter, 
and  felt  sure  that  we  must  have  been  attacked  by  enemies. 
I hastily  lit  a home-made  wax  candle,  and  got  from  under  my 
net.  I had  hardly  done  so  before  three  men  rushed  into  my 
hut,  exclaiming  that  I was  trying  to  destroy  them.  For  some 
time  I could  make  nothing  of  their  accusations.  They  were 
terribly  excited,  evidently  full  of  rage,  and  in  a dangerous  mood. 
Eventually  they  went  outside,  and  I followed. 

At  the  door  I met  two  or  three  of  the  younger  men,  who  had 
been  much  attached  to  me  for  some  time.  They  were  calmer, 
but  very  serious,  and  informed  me  that  the  ghost  of  the  old 
man  had  been  seen  to  enter  my  hut,  and  remain  there  for  some 
time,  and  then  disappear  to  the  north  ; but  who  had  seen  him 
I could  not  gather.  They  moreover  informed  me  that  it  was 
believed  that  when  I spoke  at  the  grave,  I had  communicated 
with  the  dead  person,  and  urged  him  to  have  an  interview  with 
me.  This,  of  course,  if  true,  was  a breach  of  custom,  and,  in 
my  case,  of  honour  also.  My  informants  further  told  me  that 

166 


BURIAL  RITES 


the  people  were  greatly  incensed,  and  purposed  killing  me.  I 
could  see  that  they  were  loath  that  I should  meet  with  such  a 
tragic  end,  but  it  was  plain  that  they  also  believed  I had  been 
juggling  with  the  ghost. 

I realized  that  the  moment  was  extremely  critical.  It  was 
no  good  arguing  with  them  in  their  present  excited  state,  and 
I saw  that  my  safety  lay  in  keeping  as  quiet  as  possible.  To 
attempt  flight  would  have  been  folly,  but  I felt  that  I should 
be  much  safer  if  I could  get  out  of  the  way  for  a time.  They 
have  a dread  of  going  near  a grave  in  the  night,  and  even  their 
witch-doctors  will  not  do  this.  So  I decided  to  try  the  follow- 
ing experiment.  I explained  to  the  few  more  reasonable  ones 
that  the  accusation  of  the  people  was  false  and  unjust,  and  that 
I was  so  convinced  that  there  was  no  spirit  about  that  I would, 
if  they  liked,  walk  over  to  the  grave,  in  order  to  show  them 
that  I had  implicit  faith  in  my  assertion.  The  few  near  me 
seemed  to  think  that  this  was  reasonable,  and,  not  wishing  to 
give  them  time  to  reconsider,  I began  at  once  to  put  my  offer 
into  execution.  I knew  that,  if  I could  once  get  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  grave,  I could  remain  undisturbed  for  the  rest  of  that 
night,  and  probably  by  the  morning  their  excitement  and 
hostility  might  have  died  down.  I had  not  gone  far,  however, 
before  they  brought  me  back.  A strong  discussion  seemed  to 
follow.  Some  were  evidently  taking  my  part,  but  I overheal'd 
one  old  man  observe  that  it  was  quite  easy  for  me  to  offer  to 
walk  in  that  direction,  as  I had  just  had  an  interview  with  the 
ghost,  and  therefore  could  not  possibly  be  afraid  to  meet  it 
again,  adding  some  other  remarks  about  my  powers  as  a wizard. 

Finding  nothing  further  could  be  done,  I tried  to  appear 
quite  indifferent,  and  retired  again  under  my  net.  Doubtless 
they  thought  that  I had  gone  to  sleep,  and  perhaps  remarked 
on  my  coolness  and  bravery.  But  in  reality  I remained  quite 
as  wide  awake  as  any  of  them  for  the  remainder  of  that  night. 

I heard  afterwards  that  the  cause  of  all  the  uproar  was  an 
old  woman’s  dream,  in  which  she  saw  the  ghost.  As  the  people 
had  been  in  an  exceptionally  excited  and  anxious  state  of 
mind  that  night,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  had  adopted 

167 


BURIAL  RITES 


this  innovation  of  remaining  in  a place  after  a death,  their 
excitement  was  easily  fanned  to  a flame  when  this  old  woman, 
suddenly  awaking,  recounted  her  dream.  Nevertheless,  my 
predicament  was  awkward  and  unpleasant  enough,  and  I do  not 
suppose  I shall  ever  know  exactly  in  what  imminent  danger  I 
was  at  the  time. 

This  incident  shows  that  the  Indian  strongly  resents,  and  is 
prepared  to  punish  with  the  greatest  possible  severity,  any 
attempt  to  have  dealings  with  the  ghosts  of  the  departed.  In 
my  case,  I had  been  a party  to  the  burial,  and  had  therefore 
been  supposed,  together  with  the  others,  to  have  done  all  that  I 
could  by  rites  and  ceremonies  to  prevent  the  spirit  from  having 
any  occasion  to  revenge  itself  upon  its  people,  and  the  accusa- 
tion of  the  Indians  was  that,  in  opposition  to  the  whole  object 
of  the  funeral  rites,  I had  called  up  the  ghost.  The  fact  also 
that  I had  urged  them  to  remain  in  the  same  village  and  abstain 
from  some  of  their  customs  made  any  breach  of  honour  on  my 
part  the  more  culpable,  as  it  placed  me  under  the  suspicion  of 
having  laid  special  traps  to  bring  about  their  ruin. 

In  the  case  before  mentioned  the  man  had  distinctly  said  that 
he  had  seen  the  woman  after  her  burial.  Now  this  could  not 
possibly  have  meant  that  he  had  seen  the  ghost,  because  all 
Indians  are  supposed  to  see  the  ghosts  of  the  dead,  and  their 
funeral  rites  aim  mainly  at  exorcising  such  apparitions.  His 
statement  meant,  so  I gathered  from  the  Indians,  either  that 
the  woman  had  not  been  actually  buried,  or  that  the  rites  had 
not  been  adequately  performed,  with  the  result  that  her  appari- 
tion had  been  hovering  about.  Now  as  he  happened  to  be  one 
of  the  funeral  party,  he  was  responsible  with  the  others  for  any 
evil  that  might  ensue,  and  because,  in  order  evidently  to  annoy 
the  others,  he  had  boasted  that  things  had  not  been  done 
satisfactorily,  he  was  put  to  death. 

To  return  now  to  my  account  of  the  burial  rite,  an  interesting 
ceremonial  is  that  of  the  purification  of  the  funeral  party  on 
their  return  to  the  village.  Several  clay  pots  containing  water 
stand  on  the  fires.  After  drinking  some  of  the  hot  water,  they 
wash  themselves  all  over.  Palo  santo  wood  is  then  burnt 

168 


BURIAL  RITES 

and  carried  round  the  village.  A hole  is  dug  to  receive  the  ashes 
of  the  village  fires,  which  are  carefully  collected  and  buried,  for 
reasons  already  given  in  a previous  chapter.  The  property  of 
the  deceased  is  then  burnt,  and  if  he  possessed  animals  they  are 
generally  killed  before  the  main  party  vacate  the  village — that  is, 
prior  to  the  actual  burial.  The  final  act  is  the  destruction  of 
their  booths,  which  they  bum  to  the  ground,  and  the  funeral 
party  proceed  with  all  haste  to  join  the  rest,  frequently  looking 
behind  them  in  nervous  fear  in  the  darkness  of  night,  and  fail- 
ing to  make  such  rapid  progress  as  they  would  wish,  owing  to 
the  thorns  and  other  obstacles  in  their  path. 

Next  day  the  near  relatives  go  into  mourning,  although,  if 
time  allows,  they  do  this  on  the  day  of  the  death.  This  consists 
in  painting  the  face  black,  generally  with  charcoal,  streaks  being 
made  to  represent  tear  courses.  The  hair  is  cropped  short,  and 
a covering  is  placed  over  the  head.  The  wailing  for  the  dead  is 
carried  on  during  the  first  night.  The  near  relatives,  as  they 
enter  the  new  village,  are  closely  muffled  up,  and  they  live  apart 
for  the  space  of  a month,  taking  their  food  alone,  and  never 
sharing  in  the  common  pot.  They  are  looked  upon  as  unclean 
until  the  expiration  of  the  days  of  mourning,  when  they  undergo 
a purification  with  hot  water,  and  it  is  not  till  then  that  the 
funeral  feast  begins.  The  bereaved  stand  outside  their  hut  and 
wail,  a fire  is  made,  and  they  are  joined  by  their  friends,  who 
stand  round  and  sing.  All  then  circle  round  the  fire,  singing 
as  they  go.  Boys  are  dressed  up  to  represent  dragon-flies,  and 
by  their  antics  and  their  inimitable  representation  of  these 
insects  cause  much  merriment.  The  purification  is  then  com- 
plete, the  mourning  is  over,  and  the  bereaved  are  allowed  to 
enter  once  more  into  the  common  village  life. 

In  the  case  of  death  from  snake-bite,  only  the  ordinary  rites 
are  observed.  In  cases  of  infanticide,  the  child  is  simply  buried, 
there  are  no  rites  connected  with  it,  and  no  mourning  attached 
to  it  beyond  the  death-wail  from  the  mother. 

A murderer,  when  executed,  is  not  mourned  for,  the  ashes  of 
the  funeral  pyre  are  scattered  to  the  four  winds,  and  the  instru- 
ments used  at  his  execution  are  first  shown  to  the  relatives  of 

169 


BURIAL  RITES 


the  murdered  man,  still  stained  with  blood,  in  order  to  prove 
that  vengeance  has  been  fully  carried  out.  They  are  then 
buried,  as  they  can  never  be  used  again  for  any  purpose. 

The  name  of  a dead  person  is  never  mentioned,  and  should  it 
be  necessary  to  refer  to  him,  he  is  only  spoken  of  as  “ he  who 
was.”  The  great  object  is  to  forget  their  lost  relatives  as  soon 
as  possible. 

The  Indian  is  loath  to  bury  if  there  is  any  possibility  of  the 
patient  surviving  the  night,  and  should  death  occur  too  late  to 
bury  that  night,  as  sometimes,  though  seldom,  does  happen, 
owing  to  an  error  of  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  wizard,  their 
peculiar  rites,  if  considered  necessai’y,  are  at  once  performed  and 
the  body  carried  out  and  placed  at  a considerable  distance 
from  the  village.  In  such  a case  the  funeral  takes  place  the 
next  day. 

A typical  instance  will  illustrate  this.  An  old  woman  un- 
expectedly showed  signs  of  final  collapse  about  nine  o’clock  one 
night.  In  her  particular  case,  the  stone  rite  was  considered 
imperative.  She  was  carried  by  her  people  to  a spot  some 
distance  from  the  village,  where  the  rite  was  performed,  and 
there  left  for  the  night.  In  the  morning  she  was  found  several 
yards  from  where  they  had  laid  her,  the  ground  being  torn  up 
all  around  her,  and  her  finger-tips  much  lacerated.  It  is  quite 
evident  that  she  could  not  have  been  dead  when  the  mutilation 
rites  were  carried  out,  and  she  must  have  spent  the  greater  part 
of  the  night  in  dreadful  agony  of  body  and  mind.  The  reader 
can  realize  for  himself  the  terrible  experience  this  woman 
must  have  undergone,  left  thus  alone  in  the  darkness  of  night, 
to  die  a lingering  death,  tortured  with  pain  and  harassed  by 
supernatural  fears. 


170 


CHAPTER  XVII 


RESCUE  OF  A CHILD 

A personal  experience  of  my  own  which  occurred  while  I was 
alone  in  the  Chaco,  only  a few  months  before  my  perilous 
adventure  at  Thlagwakhe,  will  convey  to  the  reader  some  idea 
of  one  of  the  most  horrible  and  revolting  of  Indian  customs. 

The  scene  of  this  occurrence  was  about  two  miles  west  of 
Thlagwakhe.  A severe  epidemic  of  influenza  had  visited  the 
whole  village,  and  one  woman  in  particular  had  been  in  a very 
weak  state  for  some  time.  Her  condition  ultimately  became 
critical.  During  the  previous  week  I had  arranged  to  remove 
the  village  to  Thlagwakhe,  which  was  a much  better  situation, 
and  a number  of  young  men  were  employed  in  building  huts 
there. 

About  midday  there  were  such  clear  signs  that  the  woman’s 
end  could  not  be  far  off  that  the  people  packed  up  their  belong- 
ings, and,  driving  off’  their  animals,  migrated  to  the  new  site. 
Leaving  about  eight  men  behind,  I went  over  with  the  main 
party  to  superintend  the  removal  of  my  own  property,  but  left 
word  that  I was  to  be  notified  as  soon  as  the  death  took 
place. 

About  five  o’clock  a messenger  arrived  with  the  news,  and  I 
hastened  back  with  him.  I found  the  woman  lying  outside  the 
village  covered  with  reed  matting,  and  preparations  were  being 
vigorously  made  for  her  burial.  The  water-pots  for  purifica- 
tion purposes  were  already  on  the  fire.  Knowing  their  customs, 
I insisted  upon  examining  the  woman,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
protests  of  the  Indians,  I removed  the  matting.  Her  pleading 
eyes  met  my  gaze,  and  in  a faint  voice  she  implored  me  to  give 

171 


RESCUE  OF  A CHILD 

her  a drink  of  water.  This  I procured  for  her,  greatly  to  the 
annoyance  of  the  rest. 

Presently  two  men  drew  near,  bringing  a pole  with  them,  and 
announcing  that  the  grave  was  ready.  It  was  now  about  six 
o’clock,  and  the  sun  was  fast  setting.  There  then  ensued  a 
heated  altercation  between  myself  and  the  men,  I protesting 
against  her  burial,  since  she  was  still  alive,  and  they  eager  to 
hasten  it,  her  own  husband  being  one  of  the  party.  Eventually 
they  agreed  to  wait  until  the  last  possible  moment,  which  was 
not  long  in  coming.  I examined  her  again.  She  appeared  to 
be  quite  unconscious,  but  was  still  breathing.  Life,  however, 
could  not  last  much  longer.  In  spite  of  my  further  pleading, 
they  carried  her  off,  burying  her  without  mutilation,  and  only 
placing  fire  in  the  grave. 

I did  not  wait  at  the  grave-side  more  than  a few  minutes,  but 
hurried  back  to  the  village  in  order  to  soothe  her  three-months- 
old  child,  which  had  been  left  in  a hammock.  I had  never  even 
heard  of  their  horrible  custom  of  burying  an  infant  thus  left, 
with  its  mother,  and  I quite  concluded  that  the  father  intended 
taking  it  with  him  when  the  rites  were  completed.  What  was 
my  horror,  therefore,  when  the  father  and  another  man  appeared 
and  prepared  to  carry  the  child  off! 

“ You  surely  will  not  kill  the  infant  ?”  I said. 

“ Oh  no,”  he  replied  ; “ the  mother  would  be  angry ; our 
custom  is  to  place  it  in  the  grave  with  the  mother.” 

“What!  alive?”  I asked. 

“ Yes,  such  is  our  way,”  he  replied,  and  he  appeared  very 
angry  at  the  mere  suggestion  on  my  part  of  any  further  inter- 
ference with  their  customs. 

However,  I made  a bold  stand  against  such  a proceeding. 

Presently  the  other  men  arrived  to  inquire  the  reason  of  the 
delay,  on  learning  which  their  anger  knew  no  bounds,  especially 
when  I persisted  in  my  opposition.  Matters  were  becoming  very 
serious,  for  they  assumed  a threatening  attitude.  I could  not, 
despite  the  risk  involved,  stand  by  and  be  a party  to  such  a 
brutal  deed.  In  turn,  I threatened  them  with  the  wrath  of 
Higher  Powers,  of  which,  however,  they  knew  little  at  that  time. 

172 


RESCUE  OF  A CHILD 


I vowed  that  I would  leave  their  country,  and  would  refuse  any 
longer  to  associate  with  men  capable  of  perpetrating  such  a cruel 
murder.  They  retorted  as  hotly  that  I was  a stranger,  and  had 
no  right  to  interfere  with  them.  The  young  Chief,  however,  and 
two  young  men,  to  my  great  surprise,  took  my  part,  and  told 
the  others  that  it  was  well  known  that  I had  powers  unknown 
to  their  people,  and  that  probably  in  my  case  I could  rear  the 
child,  and  ward  off  the  wi’ath  of  the  mother.  It  was  a struggle 
for  righteousness  and  humanity,  in  which  I might  feel  sure  of 
Divine  support. 

The  argument  had  been  so  long,  and  their  excitement  so 
intense,  that  the  flight  of  time  had  been  unnoticed,  and  darkness 
had  almost  settled  down  upon  us.  Greatly  to  my  relief  and  joy, 
they  allowed  me  to  take  the  child,  and  fearing  the  possibility  of 
a change  of  mind  on  their  part,  I left  them  to  finish  the  funeral 
rites  themselves,  and  hastened  off'  with  the  child  in  my  arms, 
feeling  sure  that  on  my  arrival  at  the  village,  I should  without 
any  difficulty  find  some  suitable  woman  to  nurse  the  child  for 
me.  To  my  disgust  and  surprise,  however,  I was  met  with  fierce 
abuse  from  men  and  women  alike.  I appealed  to  the  child’s 
sister,  a girl  of  about  eighteen,  feeling  sure  that  her  natural 
affection  would  induce  her  to  give  me  all  the  help  she  could,  but 
she  was,  if  anything,  more  abusive  to  me  than  the  rest.  As  the 
child  must  have  had  practically  no  nourishment  that  day,  I 
placed  it  in  my  hut,  but  when  I called  to  some  of  the  people  to 
assist  me  in  catching  a goat  in  order  that  I might  get  some 
milk,  they  flatly  refused,  and  even  forbade  me  to  get  milk 
myself. 

The  people  were  profoundly  stirred  with  excitement  and  rage, 
and  the  arrival  at  this  juncture  of  the  burial  party  unfortunately 
made  matters  worse.  I did  the  best  I could  under  the  circum- 
stances, and,  after  preparing  some  rice-water,  managed  to  give 
the  child  a little  nourishment  with  a spoon.  Shortly  after  this 
I was  informed  that  I should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  that 
night  in  the  village.  The  ghost  of  the  mother,  they  said,  would 
shortly  arrive  looking  for  her  child,  and  as  I had  been  mad 
enough  to  run  such  risks  I must  face  them  alone.  I was  corn- 

173 


RESCUE  OF  A CHILD 


pelled,  therefore,  to  camp  away  from  the  village,  and  to  take 
the  baby  with  me. 

As  there  was  nothing  else  for  it,  I pulled  some  long  grass,  and, 
fixing  up  my  mosquito-net,  improvised  as  comfortable  a bed  as 
I could.  Having  washed  the  child,  and  wrapped  it  in  a piece  of 
one  of  my  spare  shirts,  I placed  it  under  the  net,  and  then,  after 
making  a fire,  sat  down  to  think  out  my  plans  for  the  immediate 
future.  My  own  stock  of  provisions  was  exceedingly  limited, 
and  quite  unsuitable  to  feed  an  infant  on.  It  occurred  to  me 
that  I might  keep  it  alive  with  rice-water  and  a thin  gruel  made 
of  flour,  together  with  an  egg,  if  I could  procure  one ; possibly 
also,  by  watching  my  opportunity,  I might  be  able  to  capture  a 
goat  and  use  its  milk  for  the  child,  and  thus  keep  it  alive  until 
I could  reach  the  River  Paraguay,  about  one  hundred  miles  off. 

It  was  imperative  that  I should  proceed  thither  at  once,  start- 
ing on  the  morrow  if  possible.  I had  also  to  contrive  some 
better  method  of  administering  this  food,  and  I thought  of  all 
sorts  of  devices.  Preparing  some  more  rice-water  for  use  in  the 
night  and  following  morning,  I then  joined  the  little  one  under 
my  net,  and  spent  a fairly  comfortable  night,  in  spite  of  the 
disturbance  prevailing  in  the  village  near  by. 

On  the  morrow  I declared  my  intention  of  leaving  immediately 
for  the  river,  and  called  for  guides  to  accompany  me. 

At  that  time  it  was  extremely  hazardous  to  make  such  a long 
journey  alone,  the  nature  of  the  country  being  such  that  unless 
one  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  tracks,  it  was  the  easiest 
matter  to  lose  oneself,  and  with  my  infant  charge  I could  not 
afford  to  lose  a day  by  straying  from  the  track. 

To  my  surprise  and  disappointment,  they  one  and  all  posi- 
tively refused  to  move.  I had  concluded  that  they  would  have 
been  only  too  glad  to  get  rid  of  me,  and  I was  filled  with  mis- 
giving at  the  attitude  which  they  adopted.  Should  they  imagine 
that  they  saw  the  ghost  of  the  woman,  it  might  lead  to  very 
serious  consequences  to  myself,  and  they  would  almost  certainly 
kill  the  child  in  order  to  propitiate  the  mother. 

As  things  turned  out,  I was  delayed  ten  days,  and  during  this 
time  I went  through  a terrible  period  of  anxiety  and  constant 

174 


RESCUE  OF  A CHILD 


dread.  My  greatest  difficulty  was  in  providing  for  the  child, 
and  such  straits  was  I in  that  I even  resorted  to  theft.  I watched 
my  opportunity,  and  stole  every  egg  I could  find.  On  several 
occasions  I was  fortunate  enough  to  waylay  a goat  as  it  wandered 
some  little  distance  from  the  village,  and  thus  secured  a cupful 
of  milk.  I tried  to  improvise  a feeding-bottle,  but  it  was  not  a 
success ; so  I hit  upon  the  expedient  of  feeding  it  by  gently 
squirting  the  fluid  from  my  mouth  into  the  mouth  of  the  child. 
But  my  chief  standby  was  a piece  of  rag,  soaked  in  milk  and 
egg,  and  then  placed  in  its  mouth,  and  I resorted  to  the  former 
method  only  when  I thought  it  was  not  taking  sufficient  nourish- 
ment. I afterwards  learnt  that,  far  from  underfeeding  it,  I had 
erred  on  the  side  of  overfeeding. 

Eventually  five  men,  including  the  father,  consented  to 
accompany  me.  One  would  have  been  quite  sufficient,  but  they 
were  evidently  convinced  that  safety  lay  in  numbers.  It  was 
late  in  the  day  before  we  set  out.  Fortunately  we  were  all 
mounted  on  horseback,  but  at  sunset  they  insisted  on  camping 
for  the  night.  As  we  had  covered  such  a short  distance,  I 
thought  the  proposal  unreasonable,  and  again  feared  trickery. 
The  next  day,  however,  we  advanced,  resting  frequently  in  order 
to  feed  the  horses.  That  night  I insisted  upon  continuing  our 
journey,  and  to  my  relief  they  agreed.  Our  route  lay  a great 
deal  through  forest  country,  and  my  companions  evidently  passed 
a more  anxious  night  than  I did.  They  were  in  terror  of  the 
ghost.  Sometimes  they  would  stop,  hearing  noises,  and  make 
me  lead  the  way.  Of  a sudden  they  would  insist  upon  my  bring- 
ing up  the  rear,  as  the  danger  seemed  to  lie  in  that  direction. 

We  reached  the  river  just  at  dawn.  I was  tired  from  the 
long  ride  and  from  having  to  carry  the  child — which  I did  in 
a prepared  sheepskin  bag — but  I was  greatly  relieved  at  being 
at  last  secure  and  within  reach  of  proper  treatment  for  my 
young  charge.  Suitable  food  was  at  once  obtained.  As  no 
evil  influences  followed  my  action,  the  demeanour  of  the  natives 
rapidly  changed,  and  they  soon,  especially  the  father,  began  to 
take  an  interest  in  the  child.  Shortly  after,  I placed  it  in  the 
care  of  the  wife  of  a missionary  resident  in  Concepcion,  and 

175 


RESCUE  OF  A CHILD 


returned  again  into  the  interior.  The  child’s  sister  soon  became 
interested,  and  actually  pleaded  with  me  to  bring  the  child  back 
and  place  it  in  her  charge. 

Unfortunately,  the  little  one  died  about  six  months  after- 
wards, and  as  I considered  it  the  special  property  of  the  Mission, 
and  had  determined  to  bring  it  up  as  a Chi'istian,  the  lady’s 
husband  baptized  it  just  before  death  by  the  name  of  Hope,  and 
she  was  buried  in  the  Chaco,  on  the  banks  of  the  Paraguay. 

I greatly  regretted  the  death  of  this  little  child.  Had  she  lived, 
it  might  have  been  possible  to  save  many  others  from  the  fate 
which  she  so  narrowly  escaped.  As  it  was,  the  Indians  concluded 
that,  as  we  had  failed  to  rear  her,  any  similar  attempt  would 
be  equally  futile,  and  only  became  more  convinced  that  theirs 
was  the  best  and  only  method  of  disposing  of  such  motherless 
children. 


ARROWS — BLUNT  HEAD,  IRON  HEAD,  AND  BARBED-WOOD  HEAD. 


17G 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


FEASTS 

One  interesting  feature  of  Chaco  Indian  life  is  the  holding  of 
periodic  feasts.  In  this  they  are  no  exception  to  the  rest  of 
mankind.  Their  life  on  the  whole  is  dull  in  the  extreme,  and 
these  gatherings  are  looked  forward  to  by  them  as  among  the 
great  events  of  their  lives,  in  bringing  the  people  together  and 
widening  their  friendships.  Although  feasts  are  connected  in 
great  measure  with  their  religion,  such  as  it  is,  they  also  partake 
very  largely  of  the  social  element.  They  are  invariably  held  on 
special  occasions,  with  the  exception  of  the  impromptu  feasts 
organized  as  a welcome  to  unexpected  visitors. 

The  Indian  feasts  are  seven  in  number,  and  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows  : 

The  Yanmana,  connected  with  the  coming  of  age  of  a girl ; 
and  the  W ainkya , to  commemorate  the  coming  of  age  of  a boy. 

The  Kyaiya,  held  to  welcome  the  spring,  the  summer  solstice, 
and  the  autumn  equinox. 

A feast  held  preparatory  to  war — one  on  the  occasion  of 
a marriage,  another  to  welcome  visitors,  and  the  funeral  feast. 

The  principal  feature  of  the  Yanmana  is  that  the  girl  sits  in 
a specially  constructed  booth  with  one  or  two  girl  companions. 
She  is  gaily  ornamented,  and  for  the  first  time  adopts  the  longer 
skirt  of  the  woman.  She  ceases  at  this  feast  to  be  a child. 
The  women  dance  by  themselves,  each  holding  a long  cane  with 
a bunch  of  deer’s  hoofs  tied  at  the  top.  These  they  strike  on 
the  ground,  producing  a loud  jangling  sound,  marking  time  to 
a chant.  Forming  themselves  into  a ring,  they  keep  a regular 
step  as  they  circle  round.  An  old  woman  in  the  centre  rattles 

177 


u 


FEASTS 


her  cane,  and  keeps  the  same  step  as  the  others,  chanting  with 
them,  but  in  a louder  tone.  She  goes  through  many  strange 
contortions  of  the  body,  at  times  pretending  to  tear  out  her  own 
hair.  The  men  also  form  into  circles,  each  holding  a gourd 
filled  with  seeds  and  small  shells,  which  they  rattle  with  a 
uniform  swinging  motion,  keeping  time  to  a chant.  The  boys, 
dressed  in  ostrich  plumes,  wear  masks  to  represent  evil  spirits, 
and,  running  one  behind  the  other,  they  move  in  and  out  among 
the  crowd  jingling  bunches  of  hoofs,  and  from  time  to  time 
uttering  prolonged  shrill  cries.  When  they  circle  round  near 
the  girl,  the  women  drive  them  off. 

The  Wainkya  takes  its  name  from  the  drums  which  are 
beaten  day  and  night  without  intermission  by  relays  of  men. 
These  drums  are  made  by  stretching  wet  deer-hide  over  clay 
pots  containing  a varying  amount  of  water  in  order  to  produce 
different  sounds.  Wrestling  is  one  of  the  features  of  this  feast. 
Both  the  Yanmana  and  the  Wainkya  frequently  last  six  or 
seven  weeks.  If  they  take  place  during  the  summer  months 
intoxicants  are  largely  used.  Vice  is  prevalent  at  both  such 
gatherings,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  give  any  adequate 
description  of  them. 

The  Kyaiya  is  a feast  at  which  the  men  alone  dance,  and 
various  games  are  indulged  in.  I believe  it  had  originally  to  do 
with  the  seasons,  as  a man  in  the  centre  of  the  circle  of  dancers 
keeps  pointing  to  the  four  cardinal  points.  If  held  in  the 
spring,  the  rejoicing  is  in  anticipation  of  the  new  food-supplies  ; 
if  in  the  summer,  it  takes  the  form  of  a thanksgiving  for  the 
alguroba,  bean  harvest ; and  if  in  the  autumn,  it  celebrates 
the  gathering  in  of  the  main  garden  crops. 

The  marriage  feast  is  similar  to  the  Kyaiya , with  this  ex- 
ception, that  the  principal  feature  of  it  is  the  pretended  stealing 
of  the  bride  by  the  bridegroom.  At  a given  time  he  runs  off 
with  his  bride,  and,  after  going  a little  way  , from  the  village, 
they  hide.  He  is  pursued  by  a company  of  young  men,  who, 
however,  fail  to  capture  him.  On  their  return,  being  supposed 
to  be  exhausted  by  their  pursuit,  they  are  surrounded  by  the 
women,  who  pour  water  upon  them  to  cool  them. 

178 


covering  made  of  the  papyrus. 


FEASTS 


The  funeral  feast  takes  place  after  a month’s  mourning,  and 
is  held  with  the  object  of  cheering  up  the  bereaved.  It  would 
appear  by  the  words  of  encouragement  which  are  spoken  to  the 
mourners  that  the  ghost  of  the  departed,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  hovering  round  for  the  previous  month,  will  now 
leave  the  district  for  good. 

The  war  feast  has  as  its  principal  feature  certain  trials  of 
strength  and  skill,  the  object  being  to  rouse  the  feelings  of  the 
people,  and  work  them  up  to  courageous  deeds. 

On  the  arrival  of  guests,  or  after  a successful  hunt,  or  on  any 
other  occasion  of  rejoicing,  a feast  is  held.  These  last  five 
feasts  mentioned  vary  in  duration  from  a day  to  a week,  seldom 
longer,  the  average  being  about  three  days.  Their  duration 
naturally  depends  largely  on  the  supply  of  food.  During  the 
day  detachments  of  women  collect  roots,  vegetables,  and  fruits, 
while  parties  of  men  are  engaged  in  hunting  and  fishing  in 
order  to  supply  the  larder. 

Except  in  the  case  of  the  first  two,  feasts  are  held  only  during 
the  night,  beginning  at  sunset  and  ending  promptly  at  sunrise, 
and  in  all  cases  the  night  is  the  most  festal  time.  In  the 
absence  of  a moon,  light  is  obtained  by  large  fires  and  palm-leaf 
torches.  All  are  gaily  painted  and  covered  with  ornaments,  their 
head-dresses  of  feathers  being  especially  striking.  Apart  from  the 
evils  attending  these  feasts,  they  have  a peculiar  savage  charm. 

It  is  quite  clear  that  before  our  arrival  in  the  country  a 
change  had  come  over  the  people,  which  has  already  been 
referred  to.  This  change  must  also  have  affected  their  feasts 
and  the  customs  connected  with  them.  For  example,  the 
marriage  feast  has  become,  as  far  as  we  know,  extinct  among 
the  Lenguas.  I myself  have  only  witnessed  one,  and  there  are 
numbers  of  young  men  of  twenty-five  years  and  under  who 
have  never  seen  or  even  heard  of  one  in  their  time.  The 
funeral  feast,  too,  seems  to  have  practically  died  out ; and,  from 
all  I have  heard,  there  appears  to  have  been  a considerable 
modification  in  all  the  other  feasts.  These  changes  have  not 
been  brought  about  through  outside  influence,  but  I can  form 
no  idea  of  the  causes  that  have  led  to  them. 

179 


FEASTS 


It  is  worthy  of  note  that  night  is  always  selected  for  these 
celebrations.  One  cause,  of  course,  is  reasonable,  and  that  is 
the  excessive  heat  of  the  days,  although  this  does  not  entirely 
explain  the  matter.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a large  amount  of 
licentiousness  prevails,  and  night  forms  a fitting  cover ; but  as 
their  witchcraft  is  also  practised  chiefly  after  sunset,  night  is 
selected  because  of  the  religious  character  of  their  feasts.  The 
Indian,  furthermore,  has  a keen  eye  to  artistic  fitness ; his  dress 
always  harmonizes  with  his  surroundings,  and  undoubtedly  the 
artistic  setting  of  a feast  is  much  enhanced  by  the  dark  shades 
of  night,  the  bright  glow  of  the  camp-fires,  and  the  light  of 
the  moon.  Certainly  the  weird  spectacle  of  an  Indian  feast 
would  lose  half  its  charm  from  a picturesque  point  of  view  were 
it  held  by  day.  Perhaps  the  best  way  in  which  I can  convey  to 
the  reader  a clear  idea  of  what  an  Indian  feast  is  really  like  will 
be  to  describe  one  of  scores  in  which  I have  taken  part.  For 
this  purpose  I shall  select  a Kyaiya  which  was  held  one  Chaco 
midsummer — December,  1892 — at  the  village  of  Kilmesakthla- 
pomaap,  distant  about  one  hundred  miles  by  road  from  the  River 
Paraguay,  and  from  the  nearest  point  of  civilization. 

The  village  was  situated  on  a clear  open  space,  beneath  the 
shade  of  large  algaroba  trees.  The  encampment  faced  the  north, 
and  to  the  south  was  the  broad  swrampy  stream,  with  little 
woods  and  tall  waving  palm  trees  all  around.  I was  staying  at 
the  village  as  the  guest  of  the  witch-doctor,  Waitkyaingwahik 
(“  Cow-nose”).  This  implied  that  I had  a deer-skin  to  lie  upon 
in  his  booth,  a piece  of  palm-log  for  a pillow,  and  my  own  blanket 
and  mosquito-net.  My  host  supplied  me  with  such  food  as  he 
had,  but  I eked  out  this  fare  with  frequent  kettles  of  tea  and  with 
flour  mixed  with  water  and  fried  in  fat  for  bread.  This  was  all 
I had  in  addition  to  Indian  food,  which  was  plentiful  enough, 
but  I confined  myself  chiefly  to  sweet  potatoes  and  pumpkins 
roasted  on  the  embers,  with  an  occasional  piece  of  sheep  or  deer 
flesh  spitted  on  a stick  over  the  fire. 

I passed  the  first  few  days  of  my  stay  in  visiting  the  gardens, 
bathing  with  the  lads  in  an  open  pool  in  the  swamp-stream, 
and  studying  their  language  and  habits.  At  night  we  generally 

180 


The  “Sowalach” 


A dance  of  the  “ Yanmana  feast,  performed  by  a troop  of  lads,  who  issue  from  the  forest, 
feathered  and  masked,  a square  string  bag  being  so  arranged  that  one  of  the  corners  projects 
from  the  nose.  On  their  near  approach —moving  in  a serpentine  formation— the  women  protect 
the  girl  in  whose  honour  the  feast  is  held  by  dancing  round  her,  chanting  loudly,  and  often  by 
douching  the  lads  with  gourds  of  water. 


4 


Wrestling  Contests 

Throwing  is  chiefly  done  by  a clever  manipulation  of  the  legs  and  feet.  The  men  often 
adopt  a peculiar  form  — some  twenty-five  form  a line,  each  gripping  the  belt  of  the  one  in 
front  Twenty-five  others,  standing  separately,  challenge,  and  attempt  to  break  the  line. 


FEASTS 


sat  round  the  fire,  smoking  and  talking  till  the  early  morning 
hours,  hearing  adventures  and  folklore,  or  discussing  incidents  of 
the  chase. 

One  night  the  question  was  brought  up  of  the  advisability 
of  holding  a Kyaiya.  The  algaroba  bean  was  plentiful  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  the  swamp-stream  was  well  stocked  with 
fish.  Palm-cabbages  could  be  easily  procured  in  large  quanti- 
ties, and  deer  had  been  reported  in  the  vicinity.  Circumstances 
were  therefore  favourable  for  holding  such  a feast,  the  abun- 
dance of  provisions  being  sufficient  to  entertain  a large  number 
of  guests.  That  night  there  was  great  excitement  in  the  village. 
The  young  lads  immediately  began  practising  for  the  dance  on 
the  open  space  in  front,  and  the  girls  made  the  night  merry 
with  their  laughter.  The  men  and  a few  of  the  older  women 
sat  in  groups,  engaged  in  the  more  serious  and  important  busi- 
ness of  discussing  the  details.  Every  now  and  then  one  of  them, 
in  a loud  peculiar  tone,  would  make  some  joking  remark  to 
another  at  the  far  end  of  the  encampment,  and  this  joke  would 
be  bandied  round  for  a few  minutes,  and  then  the  business  in 
hand  would  proceed. 

I joined  myself  to  the  business  committee.  It  was  arranged 
that  some  of  the  women  should  begin  on  the  morrow  to  collect 
the  algaroba  bean  for  the  purpose  of  brewing  a native  beer  and 
also  for  pounding  into  flour,  while  the  others  should  collect 
large  quantities  of  the  palm-cabbage,  the  tender  shoots  to  be 
eaten  uncooked,  the  harder  parts  to  be  boiled  or  roasted,  and 
some  dried,  grated,  and  made  into  flour  for  cakes.  The  older 
men  were  to  go  off  fishing — not  that  the  fish  would  keep  in  such 
a climate,  but  in  order  to  boil  them  down  for  the  fat,  which 
they  consider  such  a luxury,  and  also  to  dry,  grind  up,  and 
make  into  fish-flour.  The  younger  men  were  to  scour  the 
country  for  game. 

Presently  one  of  the  committee  turned  to  me  and  said  : 
“What  will  you  hunt,  Yiphenabanyetik  ?”  I replied  that  I 
should  be  most  willing  to  bear  my  part,  and  as  the  choice  had 
been  given  me,  I would  go  out  and  kill  the  sheep.  This  was 
taken  as  a huge  joke,  and  was  at  once  circulated  round  the 

181 


FEASTS 


encampment.  Various  jokes  were  made  in  return  at  my  expense. 
One  old  fellow  croaked  out:  “Take  care,  Yiphenabanyetik ; the 
sheep  are  very  savage.  You  had  better  climb  a tree  before  you 
shoot.”  Another  recommended  me  to  see  that  my  saddle-girths 
were  tight  and  my  spurs  sharp,  so  that  I might,  when  pressed, 
escape  by  flight.  A third  warned  me  that  sheep  could  bite.  I 
retorted  that  anyway  there  would  be  more  fat  on  the  game  that 
I brought  in  than  on  the  deer  that  they  were  likely  to  get,  and 
that,  furthermore,  I was  sure  of  killing  something,  while  it  was 
a question  whether  they  would.  This  frivolity  wasted  quite  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  of  the  committee’s  valuable  time. 

Two  men,  my  host  being  one,  were  deputed  to  cut  down  and 
prepare  two  large  bottle-trunk  trees,  to  serve,  when  hollowed 
out,  as  vats  for  brewing  purposes.  Five  young  men  were  told 
off  to  carry  invitations  to  the  villages  around.  It  was  after  mid- 
night before  we  retired  to  rest,  but  early  next  morning,  as  “ the 
red  was  breaking  in  the  sky,”  the  hunters  set  off,  the  fishers  and 
the  women  following  shortly  afterwards.  Towards  evening  the 
various  parties  began  to  return,  staggering  under  their  burdens. 

Next  day,  and  the  next,  the  same  process  was  repeated,  until 
a large  supply  of  food  had  been  collected.  About  noon  on  the 
third  day  the  first  guests  arrived.  There  was  great  excitement, 
and  at  every  succeeding  arrival  the  women  and  girls  would  run 
out  to  meet  them,  relieve  them  of  their  arms,  and,  laughing  and 
giggling,  accompany  them  towards  the  camp,  where  the  chief 
and  head  men  formally  met  and  received  them.  During  the  late 
hours  of  the  afternoon  all  were  busy  decorating  and  painting 
themselves. 

I received  special  attention  from  some  of  the  more  gifted 
artists.  My  sunburnt  skin  on  the  exposed  parts  of  my  body 
was  not  unlike  the  tint  of  the  Indian,  and  when  I had  adopted 
a blanket,  feathers,  anklets,  and  an  Indian  shirt,  all  that  was 
wanting  was  the  painting  of  my  face,  neck,  and  arms,  and  the 
decoration  of  my  head.  Two  women  took  me  in  hand,  and  with 
sticks  of  red  paint  made  from  the  seeds  of  the  urucn  plant,  they 
drew  the  most  wonderful  markings  upon  me.  My  head-dress 
was  more  troublesome  to  adjust,  owing  to  my  short  hair,  but 

182 


o > 


<u  «*. 


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z 

< 


v o 


z 


<L>  ^ 

^C.  .3 


>< 

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U 


cowhide,  are  standing  ready  to  engage  in  wrestling  bouts. 


FEASTS 


eventually  they  turned  me  out  evidently  to  their  full  satisfac- 
tion, and,  bringing  me  a piece  of  a broken  looking-glass,  bade 
me  examine  and  admire  myself.  I was  soon  the  centre  of  an 
admiring  crowd,  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  transforma- 
tion in  my  appearance  was  such  that  wherever  I had  happened 
to  appear,  I should  assuredly  have  attracted  a crowd. 

Just  as  the  sun  set  they  began  to  rattle  the  gourds,  beating 
time  to  a low  minor  chant,  and  thus  the  Kyaiyn  commenced. 
Fifteen  men  composed  the  circle  of  singers,  keeping  step  with 
their  feet,  and  gracefully  swaying  their  bodies  to  the  rattle  of 
their  gourds  and  the  chant.  There  are  various  chants  con- 
nected with  the  Kyiaya,  but  all  without  words,  with  one  rare 
exception,  although  the  Indians  assert  that  in  ancient  times  all 
their  chants  were  connected  with  various  subjects,  expressed  in 
words,  which,  however,  have  been  lost  for  some  generations,  the 
tunes  alone  surviving. 

About  an  hour  after  sunset  the  chief  meal  of  the  day  was 
ready.  Skins  were  placed  upon  the  ground  in  the  open  space 
in  front  of  the  booths,  and  on  them  the  food  was  spread.  The 
circle  of  singers  had  in  the  meantime  been  enlarged  to  about 
thirty  men,  and  the  witch-doctor,  with  an  assistant,  stood  in 
the  centre.  With  gourds  in  their  left  hands,  and  a bunch  of 
ostrich  plumes  held  in  the  right,  these  two  (keeping  step  the 
whole  time  to  the  chant)  performed  a dance  which  resembled, 
if  anything,  two  cocks  fighting. 

When  this  dance  was  concluded,  at  a signal  from  the  witch- 
doctor the  circle  formed  into  two  lines,  resembling  a “ V,”  with 
the  wizard  at  the  apex.  In  this  form  they  circled  round  the 
food-mats,  keeping  perfect  step  and  time  to  their  own  chant, 
the  formation  never  being  broken.  The  witch-doctor  next 
jumped  over  the  food,  followed  by  the  two  lines  of  dancers. 
They  then  circled  round  a second  time,  and  the  jumping  was 
repeated,  but  this  time  from  an  opposite  direction,  as  apparently 
their  custom  is  to  jump  first  from  east  to  west,  and  then  from 
north  to  south.  They  concluded  with  a flourish  of  the  gourds, 
this  being  the  signal  for  the  meal  to  commence.  Ten  of  the 
dancers,  however,  immediately  formed  a ring  and  resumed  the 

183 


FEASTS 


chanting,  for  one  of  the  essentials  of  a feast  is  that  the  song 
must  not  cease  till  the  sun  rises.  In  order  that  this  might  be 
maintained  the  chanters  relieved  each  other  in  relays.  When 
the  food  had  been  apportioned  out  by  the  leading  man,  mirth 
and  conversation  became  general. 

After  the  meal  the  elder  men  sat  in  a circle  on  the  gi’ound, 
and  beer  was  handed  to  them  in  gourds  by  the  women.  They 
all  drank  with  great  solemnity,  copious  draughts  following  one 
another  in  quick  succession  ; but  when  the  beer  took  effect  they 
began  to  talk  volubly,  and  kept  leaning  over  towards  each 
other,  making  violent  gesticulations,  as  if  they  were  engaged  in 
a serious  altercation.  In  reality  each  man  was  telling  his  own 
story,  without  paying  the  least  attention  to  his  neighbour. 
One  was  recounting  a tiger  adventure  to  his  vis-d-vis,  who, 
instead  of  listening,  was  intent  on  telling  his  experiences  of  the 
Kisapang  War  ; his  neighbour  appeared  to  be  contradicting 
him  flatly,  but  in  reality  he  was  excitedly  narrating  how  he 
exchanged  some  sheep  for  a horse. 

It  may  be  well  to  remind  the  reader  that  only  the  men  drink, 
the  women  and  youths  not  being  allowed  intoxicants. 

As  serious  quarrels  are  liable  to  arise  at  such  festive  times,  a 
small  number  of  men  were  told  oft’  each  day  and  night  to  remain 
perfectly  sober,  in  order  to  act  as  police  in  case  of  necessity  ; 
and  when  trouble  arose  the  women  at  once  secreted  all  dangerous 
weapons.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  an  Indian  becomes  hope- 
lessly intoxicated,  as  all  are  supposed  to  take  part  in  the 
dancing,  and  it  is  considered  very  bad  behaviour  to  be  incapable 
of  this.  In  their  turn,  therefore,  the  drinkers  took  their  places  in 
the  dance  circle.  The  result  was  ludicrous  to  a degree.  They 
were  somewhat  unsteady  and  drowsy  with  beer,  and  each  one, 
struggling  bravely  to  avoid  the  disgrace  of  falling  asleep,  kept 
a very  mechanical  and  faulty  step  to  a chant  which  was  sadly 
out  of  tune.  This  gave  rise  to  peals  of  laughter  from  the 
onlookers,  and  the  comical  figure  of  a Chief  with  only  one  eye, 
which  he  found  most  difficult  to  keep  open,  was  made  a butt 
for  the  taunts  and  jeers  of  the  rest. 

During  the  night,  refreshments  consisting  of  food,  water,  and 

184 


Preparing  for  a “Kyaiya”  Feast 

Three  essential  features  are  the  gourds,  from  which  the  feast  takes  its  name,  huge  fires  kept  burning  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  and  the  pot 
containing  the  food  supply.  That  seen  in  the  picture  is  one  of  the  famous  productions  from  Carron,  near  Stirling,  which  most  Indian 
families  now  possess. 


FEASTS 

pipes  of  tobacco,  were  periodically  served  to  the  dancers  by  the 
women.  The  food  was  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  held  in  a 
corner  of  their  skin  skirts.  Walking  round  the  circle,  each 
stopped  behind  the  man  she  chose,  and,  taking  a piece  of  food, 
placed  it  in  his  mouth.  Another  gave  him  a drink  of  water, 
and  another  held  a pipe  to  his  mouth,  and  so  each  was  served 
without  the  dance  being  interrupted.  Frequently  I saw  tricks 
played  by  the  girls  upon  young  men  against  whom  they  had  a 
grudge.  When  one  man  opened  his  mouth  for  a savoury 
morsel,  he  received  a lump  of  clay  instead,  which  he  spat  out, 
hut  took  no  further  notice  of  it,  while  the  onlookers  burst  into 
fits  of  laughter.  The  water-jar  was  sometimes  tipped  up  sud- 
denly, with  the  result  that  the  water  was  spilt  down  the  drinker’s 
chest,  and  somewhat  spoiled  his  ornamentation.  But  these 
tricks  were  borne  good-naturedly  by  all. 

Some  of  the  young  men  engaged  in  wrestling  contests  and 
other  dances,  in  addition  to  the  Kyaiya , which,  however,  was 
kept  steadily  going.  One  of  these  was  called  the  Maning , or 
circle.  The  dancers  formed  a circle,  with  their  arms  interlaced 
round  each  other’s  waists,  and  the  girls  joined  in,  holding  on 
behind  to  the  waist-belt  of  each  man.  The  step,  though 
quicker  than  that  of  the  Kyaiya , is  very  regular  and  graceful. 
The  chant  accompanying  it  at  first  begins  slowly,  then  gradually 
becomes  faster  and  faster,  till  the  dancers  are  out  of  breath. 
The  Lengua  chant  sung  at  the  Maning  dance  is  composed  of  a 
series  of  words  which  apparently  have  no  meaning,  with  the 
exception  of  one,  hiuerkla,  which  is  the  Suhin  word  for  “ moon”: 

“ He-e-ni, 

He-a-hani-ya, 

He-a-hani-ya, 

H6-a-i-ni 

He-a-hani-ya, 

He-a-hani-hiuerkla, 

He-a-hani-he-i-a 

He-a-hani-he-i-a.” 

Repeat  “ He-e-ni,  He-a-hani-ya  ” ad  lib. 

The  chant  has  its  musical  intervals,  but  they  are  too  vague  and 
irreg  ular  to  be  reproduced  in  notation. 

185 


FEASTS 


Another  dance  in  which  they  indulged  at  this  Kyaiya  was 
very  similar  to  one  that  I had  seen  among  the  Yaghan  Indians 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego — the  Kawasheut.  Two  lines  of  dancers 
faced  each  other,  with  their  arms  resting  on  each  other’s 
shoulders,  and,  keeping  step  to  their  chant,  they  advanced  and, 
then  reversing  the  step,  retreated.  At  first  the  step  was 
slow,  but  gradually  quickened,  until  the  dancers  ceased  from 
exhaustion. 

At  one  juncture  of  this  feast  the  harmony  was  somewhat 
spoilt  by  a woman  becoming  sick  and  requiring  the  assistance 
of  the  witch-doctor  ; but  the  proceedings  were  not  allowed  to  be 
interrupted,  the  wizard  and  a few  companions  alone  attending 
on  the  sick  woman.  The  effect  of  this  solemn  sick  dirge 
mingling  at  the  dead  of  night  with  the  more  lively  chant  of  the 
dance  and  other  sounds  of  merriment,  coupled  with  the  whole 
weird  setting  of  the  scene,  illuminated  as  it  was  by  the  light  of 
many  fires,  which  were  being  constantly  i-eplenished,  caused  an 
impression  not  easily  forgotten. 

As  soon  as  the  sun  rose  the  gourds  were  held  aloft  and 
rattled  vigorously  to  signify  that  the  festivities  were  at  an  end 
until  the  following  evening.  Everyone  was  tired,  sleepy,  and 
husky,  and  most  of  the  party  lost  no  time  in  selecting  shady 
spots  where  they  might  sleep.  The  scene  then  was  almost  as 
strange  as  that  of  the  past  night.  Under  every  suitable  tree  in 
the  vicinity  lay  prostrate  forms,  with  their  blankets  wrapped 
over  their  heads  in  spite  of  the  heat.  If  a traveller  had  come 
suddenly  upon  the  encampment  he  might  have  thought  that 
some  disaster  had  befallen  it,  and  that  the  covered  bodies  were 
those  of  the  dead. 

It  was  not  till  the  afternoon  that  any  appearance  of  life 
showed  itself.  Then  the  people  began  to  bestir  themselves, 
and  painting  and  decorating  recommenced.  Parties  went  off  to 
the  forest  to  get  firewood  ; women  were  to  be  seen  in  long  lines 
carrying  jars  of  water  from  the  neighbouring  swamp,  and  a few 
old  men  went  off  fishing. 

As  the  sun  was  setting  the  dancers  took  up  their  positions, 
and  with  rattle  and  chant  the  feast  was  resumed,  and  continued 

186 


FEASTS 


for  six  days  and  nights.  As  soon  as  it  was  over,  Chaco  etiquette 
demanded  that  the  visitors  should  at  once  leave.  Tired  out  as 
they  were,  they  only  travelled  a short  distance,  and  then, 
selecting  a shady  spot,  they  lay  down  and  slept  until  sufficiently 
refreshed  to  continue  their  journey. 

During  my  first  few  yeai's  amongst  these  people  I mixed 
freely  in  their  feasts,  as  by  this  means  I was  enabled  to  study 
them  to  greater  advantage  ; it  also  pleased  the  people,  and  won 
me  a place  in  their  affections.  I found  it  very  tiresome,  how- 
ever, after  the  first  novelty  wore  off;  even  if  I had  wanted  to 
sleep  at  night,  the  din  would  have  made  it  impossible,  and 
I should  have  lost  weight  with  them  had  I given  way  to  this 
weakness. 

We  even  encouraged  feasts  for  a time  with  a view  of  drawing 
the  people  together,  and  we  ourselves  contributed  to  the  food- 
supply.  Even  after  we  were  in  a position  to  begin  mission- 
work  amongst  them  we  found  it  necessary  to  continue  our 
sanction  to  this  their  chief  form  of  amusement,  for  they  would 
not  have  remained  with  us  had  we  prohibited  feasts  altogether ; 
but  we  enforced  certain  restrictions.  At  an  early  stage  we 
refused  to  allow  native  beer,  we  limited  their  duration,  and 
insisted  upon  moral  conduct  as  far  as  possible.  Since  Indian 
etiquette  required  that  all  visitors  should  leave  the  moment  the 
feast  was  over,  we  stipulated  that  visitors  must  arrive  a con- 
siderable time  before  the  proposed  feast  was  to  be  held.  This 
enabled  us  to  mix  freely  with  them  and  exert  some  little 
influence  over  them  for  good,  which  was  quite  impossible  during 
the  excitement  of  the  festivities. 

Among  the  more  trained  and  Christian  natives  a higher  view 
of  life  now  prevails,  and  we  have  noticed  a growing  and  spon- 
taneous disinclination  for  their  old  diversions,  and  a stronger 
desire  for  more  refined  and  intellectual  amusements. 


187 


CHAPTER  XIX 
INDIAN  SOCIALISM 

From  the  little  I have  been  able  to  gather  of  their  history, 
I have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Chaco  Indians  were  at 
one  time  a vastly  superior  race — better  off  in  many  respects 
than  they  are  now,  and  that  their  degeneration  is  due  to  their 
social  system,  for  in  their  free  native  state  they  are  thoroughly 
socialistic.  Before  going  into  the  question  fully,  it  may  be 
profitable  to  summarize  the  features  of  this  system  as  it  exists 
amongst  them. 

The  land  belongs  to  the  people  generally,  and  no  Indian,  not 
even  a Chief,  has  any  direct  claim  to  any  part  of  it  over  his 
fellows.  No  Indian  is  encouraged  to  have  more  possessions 
than  his  neighbour.  Their  flocks  feed  on  the  common  pasture, 
and  they  only  lay  claim  to  their  gardens  while  actually 
cultivating  them. 

The  natural  products  of  the  country,  such  as  game,  honey, 
wild  fruits,  fish,  and  firewood,  are  the  common  property  of  all, 
and  native  law  enjoins  the  widest  hospitality. 

Every  man  is  supposed  to  hunt ; there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
leisured  class,  not  even  among  Chiefs. 

There  are  really  no  social  distinctions,  the  Chiefs  only  holding 
rule  when  it  is  for  the  common  good,  such  as  in  time  of  war. 

There  is  no  law  of  inheritance.  The  clan  is  to  a great  extent 
as  responsible  for  the  children  as  the  parents  themselves ; and 
the  education  and  maintenance  of  children  are  tribal  matters 
rather  than  parental.  Children  are  supposed  to  have  as  much 
liberty  as  possible. 


188 


INDIAN  SOCIALISM 

As  far  as  native  law  goes,  there  is  very  little  restriction  in 
marriage. 

The  aged  must  be  kept  at  the  expense  of  the  community,  as 
also  the  sick  or  disabled. 

Competition  in  the  way  of  one  man  striving  to  rise  superior 
to  his  fellow-men,  to  rule  over  others,  or  to  better  himself  at 
their  expense,  is  strongly  discouraged,  and  almost  non-existent. 

Those  who  have  been  travelling,  and  therefore  not  able  to 
produce  crops,  or  those  who  for  any  other  reason  have  no 
means  of  subsistence  for  the  time  being,  have  a claim  on  the 
community. 

Passing  from  this  summary  to  fuller  details,  I will  endeavour 
to  show  how  at  least  four  centuries  of  their  peculiar  social 
system  have  affected  the  Chaco  Indians.  There  is  among  them 
as  much  diversity  of  ability,  strength,  and  energy  as  amongst 
other  people,  but  the  able  agriculturist  who  could,  if  he  would, 
acquire  a large  and  productive  plantation  by  his  own  efforts, 
who  by  thrift  and  industry  could  maintain  his  own  family  and 
dependents  comfortably,  refuses,  in  obedience  to  the  socialistic 
law,  to  work  for  the  support  of  others  of  whom  he  does  not 
approve.  Accordingly  he  produces  no  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  present  needs.  He  never  saves  anything  against 
the  day  of  adversity,  because  others  are  not  doing  the  same,  and 
therefore,  if  he  had  a store  in  reserve,  the  thriftless  would  step 
in  and  share  it  with  him.  The  clever  hunter  can  bring  in 
abundance  of  game,  but  he  sees  no  use  in  unduly  fatiguing  him- 
self, and  is  content  with  supplying  his  own  immediate  needs 
and  the  wants  of  those  whom  he  desires  to  help.  The  natural 
result  is  that  the  Indian,  in  course  of  generations,  has  become 
thriftless,  lazy,  and  selfish,  and  has  lost,  to  a great  extent,  all 
kind  feelings  for  those  outside  his  own  immediate  circle. 

Some  examples  of  Indian  life  will  serve  to  illustrate  these 
statements.  I once  urged  a strong  and  capable  Indian  to  use 
the  land  which  he  had  under  cultivation  to  better  advantage. 
He  agreed  that  the  soil  was  good,  and  that  with  comparatively 
little  more  effort  he  could  treble  the  amount  of  produce.  Pie 
also  admitted  that  he  understood  well  how  to  preserve  his  maize 

189 


INDIAN  SOCIALISM 


and  other  products,  and  thereby  secure  himself  against  hunger, 
and  even  against  the  short  rations  which  cause  the  Indian  much 
suffering  for  a considerable  part  of  the  year.  But  he  argued 
that  it  would  not  benefit  him  if  he  were  to  do  so.  He 
mentioned  several  of  his  clansmen,  and  bade  me  look  at  their 
tiny  gardens,  saying : “ If  I grew  large  crops,  these  men  would 
grow  still  less,  and,  according  to  our  custom,  they  would  become 
my  uninvited  guests,  and  the  surplus  over  and  above  what  I now 
have  would  go  to  them  instead  of  to  my  family.  Were  I to 
garner  my  crops  and  keep  them  for  a time  of  scarcity,  these 
men  would  not  exercise  equal  thrift,  and  knowing  that  I had  a 
stock  they  would  call  upon  me.” 

On  another  occasion,  when  I was  out  hunting  with  Indians,  we 
found  an  ostrich’s  nest  containing  many  eggs,  all  of  which  they 
immediately  took.  I remonstrated,  and  said  : “ Why  not  leave 
some,  so  that  the  stock  of  ostriches  may  be  maintained  ?”  They 
only  laughed,  and  said,  “ The  wolf,  if  he  finds  it,  will  consume 
what  we  leave,  or  if  an  Indian  comes  along  he  will  take  them.” 
So  they  sat  down  and  proceeded  to  gorge  themselves,  eating  an 
altogether  unnecessary  amount,  and  only  took  away  a few  for 
their  families.  This  struck  me  as  an  example  of  the  most  un- 
mitigated greed  and  selfishness,  but  on  arriving  that  night  at 
their  village,  the  hunters  were  speedily  surrounded  by  a number 
of  people  whom  I knew  to  be  exceptionally  lazy,  and  who  had 
not  that  day  made  any  effort  to  obtain  food.  They  at  once 
inquired  of  the  hunters  what  they  had  found,  and  the  reply  was, 
“ Ostrich  eggs.”  With  sparkling  eyes  they  asked,  “ How 
many  ?”  “ Only  a few,”  was  the  reply  ; “ we  have  been  able  to 

carry  barely  sufficient  for  a meal  for  our  own  families.”  This 
was,  to  a great  extent,  untrue,  and  I told  them  so.  Their  reply 
was  that  some  of  their  people  would  never  seek  for  food  if  they 
could  possibly  get  it  from  others,  and  that  they  could  not 
appreciate  the  virtue  of  denying  themselves  and  carrying  a 
heavy  burden  through  the  heat  in  order  to  save  these  men,  who 
were  as  capable  as  themselves,  from  exertion  on  their  own 
behalf. 

The  Indians  build  miserable  dwellings,  small,  cramped,  and 

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INDIAN  SOCIALISM 

affording  very  insufficient  shelter,  and  yet  when  employed  by 
us  to  build  a hut  on  native  lines  for  ourselves,  they  can  speedily 
make  a very  satisfactory  one.  When  I rebuked  them  for  not 
making  better  shelters  for  themselves,  they  replied  : “If  we 
built  a large  and  roomy  hut,  others  would  claim  our  hospitality 
in  bad  weather.  Why,  therefore,  should  we  exert  ourselves  to 
save  others  the  trouble  ?” 

A native  will  frequently  keep  a secret  hoard  of  food  or  honey, 
and  even  allow  it  to  waste,  simply  because  he  objects  to  sharing 
it  with  others  whom  he  does  not  like. 

This  Socialism  has  dwarfed  and  stunted  every  characteristic  of 
the  people.  A man  who  insisted  upon  keeping  for  himself  and 
his  family  the  possessions  which  he  had  gained  by  his  own 
efforts  would  be  hated  and  terrorized  by  the  others.  A man 
will  not  even  keep  two  blankets,  the  second  for  a change,  because 
a man  without  sheep,  or  wedded  to  a lazy  wife  who  will  not 
weave,  will  pester  him  to  lend  his  spare  blanket,  and  this  would 
generally  end  in  the  borrower  keeping  it.  He  therefore  prefers 
to  sell  it,  as  soon  as  an  opportunity  occurs,  for  something  with 
which  he  can  gratify  a temporary  pleasure. 

The  Indian  is  generally  very  fond  of  his  children,  and  supplies 
their  needs  lavishly.  He  is  kind  to  his  immediate  relatives  and 
friends  ; and  the  casual  visitor,  watching  the  people  sharing  their 
food,  apparently  with  great  generosity,  might  think  that  they 
were  exceptionally  liberal  and  kind-hearted.  But  this  apparent 
hospitality  is  given  grudgingly,  though  ostensibly  with  a good 
grace.  They  are  compelled  to  share  by  native  law.  This 
system  leads  not  only  to  poverty  and  thriftlessness,  but  even  to 
crime.  The  old  are  often  neglected,  not  so  much  from  intention 
as  on  account  of  the  extreme  poverty  into  which  the  people  have 
fallen,  and  of  the  selfishness  of  many  who  insist  upon  sharing 
the  food  instead  of  exerting  themselves  to  increase  the  supply. 

Socialism  with  the  Indian  is  not  a matter  of  choice,  but  has 
been  forced  upon  him  by  his  circumstances.  The  nature  of  the 
country,  owing  to  the  want  of  appliances  to  improve  it,  is  such 
that  he  is  forced  to  lead  a nomadic  life,  and  therefore  there  has 
been,  up  to  the  present,  no  necessity  to  claim  rights  in  land. 

191 


INDIAN  SOCIALISM 


Again,  the  history  of  the  people  proves  that  they  have  drifted 
into  this  inhospitable  plain  through  forces  over  which  they  had 
no  control,  the  chief  being  the  pressure  of  stronger  nations 
behind  them.  Pressed  from  behind,  and  met  by  opposition 
from  those  already  occupying  the  lower  lands,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  fight  for  their  very  existence.  Every  man  counted' in 
war,  even  if  lazy  and  thriftless  in  peace.  It  was  impossible  to 
live  apart  from  the  clan  life  of  little  communities.  Life  would 
be  unbearable  in  such  a land  without  society  and  companionship. 
It  would  be  impossible  for  the  Indian  to  live  the  life  of  the  lonely 
settler  in  the  Colonies,  for  he  is  essentially  a sociable  being,  and 
delights  in  the  company  of  his  fellows.  Friction  and  unpleasant- 
ness in  a small  community  would  be  unbearable,  and  having 
begun  the  common  life  in  the  early  times  of  danger,  when  it  was 
necessary  for  all  to  share,  they  found  it  difficult  afterwards  to 
make  changes  which  might  have  led  to  disintegration. 

We  found  it  absolutely  necessary,  if  we  were  ever  going  to 
raise  the  people  above  the  low  level  in  which  we  found  them,  to 
oppose  this  social  system,  and,  knowing  the  innate  conservatism 
of  the  Indians,  we  were  surprised  to  find  how  readily  they 
welcomed  the  alteration.  In  fact,  before  we  reached  the  country, 
the  people,  having  become  settled  in  the  land,  and  to  a great 
extent  freed  from  the  dangers  of  war,  had  already  begun  to 
break  up  into  smaller  parties  than  formerly.  New  clans  had 
been  formed,  chiefly  composed  of  immediate  relatives,  and  had 
already  acquired  property.  We  also  found  that  they  had,  to  a 
slight  extent,  begun  to  make  things  uncomfortable  for  loafers 
and  non -producers,  and  that  in  marriage  they  strongly  opposed 
any  alliance  between  their  women  and  men  who  were  known  to 
be  indolent. 

Since  man  will  not  gather,  if  what  he  gathers  is  to  be  taken 
from  him,  we  set  to  work  to  urge  upon  them  the  need  of  securing 
the  rights  of  those  who  honestly  acquired  property.  We  met 
with  instant  and  cordial  support,  and  in  these  few  years  a great 
change  has  come  over  the  people.  The  communal  system  is 
rapidly  dying  out,  and  as  rapidly  are  the  people  rising  in  the 
social  scale  and  emerging  from  barbarism.  We  have  impressed 

192 


INDIAN  SOCIALISM 


upon  them  the  absolute  necessity  of  relatives  supporting  relatives, 
and  of  parents  providing  entirely  for  their  children  before  seeking 
help  from  the  community. 

Our  aim  has  been  to  make  them  a sturdy,  independent  race, 
not  a nation  of  paupers.  To  the  credit  of  the  Indian,  be  it 
said,  that  after  four  centuries  of  this  degenerating  system  of 
dependence  upon  others,  he  has  much  in  his  character  of  genuine 
generosity  and  kindness,  and  that,  given  a fair  opportunity,  he 
has  still  a good  deal  of  hardy  independence  and  self-reliance. 
Since  a complete  social  revolution  has  taken  place  amongst  this 
people  within  the  last  twenty  years,  we  find  them  no  longer 
communists,  but  self-reliant  workers,  accumulating  property  by 
their  own  efforts,  and  responding  cheerfully  and  heartily  to  the 
claims  which  a Christian  civilization  makes  upon  them. 

With  the  small  means  at  present  at  their  disposal,  they 
contribute  to  the  cost  of  their  school  and  hospital,  and  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  sick  and  poor  who  have  no  relatives  to 
support  them.  They  still  administer  their  own  laws — that  is 
rule  themselves — though  under  our  guidance,  but  no  help  of  any 
description  is  given  indiscriminately  by  them  or  by  us  wherever 
it  should  be  avoided. 

To  take,  for  instance,  one  small  community  of  some  two 
hundred  people.  Fifteen  years  ago  the  only  property  they 
possessed  were  their  weapons,  some  miserable  household  chattels, 
and  a few  sheep,  goats,  and  horses  ; whereas  to-day  that  com- 
munity is  in  possession  of  aggregate  wealth  amounting  to  close 
upon  dCl,000,  in  flocks  and  herds,  goods,  houses,  and  permanent 
gardens,  not  to  mention  a considerable  sum  of  money  in  a 
savings1  bank  of  their  own.  Three  natives  possess  their  own 
ti’ading  stores,  whilst  many  others  are  itinerant  traders.  Their 
church  they  maintain  almost  entirely,  and  have  already  con- 
tributed a very  large  sum  towards  the  building  of  it.  The 
principle  that  we  have  taught,  and  which  they  have  accepted,  is 
that  every  man  and  woman  must  fight  their  own  battle  in  life, 
but  that  they  must  also  devote  something  to  generous  and 
voluntary  charity,  supplying  their  own  needs  first,  and  then  out 
of  their  surplus  helping  others  as  they  can.  But,  fortunately, 

193 


N 


INDIAN  SOCIALISM 


there  is  no  very  great  need  of  charity,  for  their  country  is  such 
that  it  can  easily  be  made  to  maintain  them  if  they  will  only 
exert  themselves.  It  is  sufficient  that  the  broad  principles  of 
self-support  and  independence  of  character  have  been  implanted 
in  them,  and  that  they  must  now  rely  principally  on  themselves 
to  work  out  their  own  destiny. 


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CHAPTER  XX 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  general  opinion  that  the  average  Englishman  seems  to  hold 
with  regard  to  the  Indian  of  the  New  World  is  that  he  is  a 
stern,  morose,  and  stoical  being,  capable  of  the  cruellest  deeds, 
and  lacking  in  natural  affection.  This  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
when  we  remember  that  very  few  Europeans  have,  during  the 
present  generation,  come  into  close  and  intimate  contact  with 
the  primitive  red  man,  especially  in  South  America. 

The  fact  is  that  there  is  a great  diversity  of  disposition 
among  the  Indian  races,  and  it  is  no  more  possible  to  regal’d 
the  American  aborigines  as  alike  in  character  than  it  would  be 
to  assume  similarity  of  disposition  among  the  various  European 
races.  I think,  however,  that  I am  justified  in  saying  that 
there  are  two  marked  characteristics  common  to  all  Indians,  one 
of  which  is  their  aversion  from  exhibiting  their  feelings  before 
strangers,  the  other  their  suspiciousness  of  all  foreigners. 
Confidence  is  a plant  of  slow  growth,  and  the  Indian  does  not 
readily  confide  in  anyone. 

As  this  work  treats  only  of  those  Indians  of  the  Chaco  with 
whom  I have  lived,  and  to  the  study  of  whose  character  I have 
devoted  myself  for  twenty  years,  I shall  endeavour  to  deal  as 
exhaustively  as  possible  with  the  topic  which  is  the  subject  of 
this  chapter.  It  must  be  fully  recognized  that  there  is  as  much 
individual  variety  among  them  as  among  ourselves.  But,  re- 
garded as  a whole,  their  main  characteristics  are  strong 
conservatism,  lightheartedness,  amiability,  humour  of  a certain 
type,  and  a capacity  for  forming  staunch  friendships.  They 
exhibit  to  a remarkable  degree  the  power  of  self-control  and 

195 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


patience.  They  are  emotional,  but  only  under  great  provocation 
do  they  give  way  to  outbursts  of  temper  and  become  fanatical. 

They  undoubtedly  possess  physical  courage.  While  they  are 
by  no  means  quarrelsome,  they  are  intensely  jealous.  With  this 
glance  at  their  characteristics  as  a whole,  I will  now  deal  with 
this  subject  in  detail. 

As  might  naturally  be  expected  among  a heathen  people, 
many  of  their  customs  are  unquestionably  evil,  but  there  are  a 
great  number  which,  although  they  may  appear  to  us  childish 
and  ridiculous,  are  after  all  perfectly  innocent.  They  hold  to 
their  customs  with  great  tenacity,  and  when  urged  to  adopt  a 
better  and  more  practical  way,  they  simply  shrug  their  shoulders 
and  say  with  a superior  air,  “ Ikhawe  mintime  inningkoo”  (That 
is  not  our  custom).  Although  they  recognize  some  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  European  clothing,  especially  when  engaged  in 
certain  kinds  of  work,  they  nevertheless  discard  it  and  adopt 
their  native  costume  when  mixing  with  their  own  people.  Even 
the  civilized  Indians  are  conservative,  and  show  little  inclination 
to  adopt  foreign  ways  and  customs,  although  they  acknowledge 
that  some  of  our  ways  are  better  and  more  seemly. 

For  example,  an  Indian  considers  it  incorrect,  on  returning 
to  his  village  after  a prolonged  absence,  to  take  any  notice  of 
his  nearest  and  dearest,  such  as  his  wife  and  children,  or  his 
mother  and  father.  It  is  not  because  they  lack  affection,  for 
after  a little  time  they  exhibit  undisguised  pleasure  at  meeting 
again.  This  custom  is  still  maintained,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
for  many  years  they  have  had  ample  opportunities  of  seeing  how 
foreigners  greet  one  another,  and  that  we  do  not  artificially  stifle 
our  real  feelings  as  they  do. 

Their  conservatism  is  also  very  marked  in  respect  of  their 
language,  and  incidentally  entails  much  inconvenience.  They 
strongly  object  to  adopting  foreign  words,  and  when  of  necessity 
something  is  introduced  for  which  they  have  no  name,  such  as  a 
kettle,  rice,  or  a churn,  they  at  once  proceed  to  coin  a compound 
word  for  it,  which,  as  the  reader  will  easily  see,  is  most  cumber- 
some and  awkward,  not  only  for  us,  but  also  for  themselves. 
Their  equivalents  for  these  articles  are  respectively : Methling- 

196 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


chischama-yingmin  (the  thing  that  causes  water  to  be  boiled), 
ho-elyowea-apkatkuk-apuk  (like  the  eggs  of  the  aut  which  has 
a big  head),  eltikthlik-thlama-waitkya-namankuk-engviinik  (the 
beater  of  the  juice  of  the  udder  of  the  cow).  Conservatism  has 
undoubted  advantages,  but  when  it  stands  in  the  way  of  better 
methods,  as  in  the  above  instances,  devotion  to  the  past  becomes 
ridiculous. 

In  spite  of  the  many  drawbacks  of  their  conservatism  in  this 
and  other  phases  of  their  life,  it  has  many  decided  advantages. 
One  is  that  when  once  they  adopt  a new  idea,  they  hold  firmly 
to  it.  Another  is  that,  not  being  readily  influenced,  they  are 
not  led  to  accept  a new  system  such  as  Christianity  without  first 
carefully  considering  the  step  they  are  about  to  take,  and  there- 
fore, when  once  won  over,  they  are  not  given  to  change. 

They  are  an  exceedingly  light-hearted  and  amiable  people, 
delighting  in  the  company  of  their  fellows,  and  much  given  to 
feasting  and  merry-making.  In  their  villages,  the  sound  of 
laughter  is  the  rule  and  not  the  exception,  and  this  with  old 
and  young  alike.  They  are  not  quick  to  take  offence  ; even 
under  the  most  trying  conditions,  exposed  as  they  constantly 
are  to  the  elements,  and  suffering  frequently  from  both  hunger 
and  thirst,  they  seldom  lose  their  good-humour. 

In  their  wild  nomadic  life  they  often  incur  serious  losses,  as, 
for  instance,  a man  may  lose  his  only  horse  from  snake-bite,  or 
their  flocks  may  suffer  severely  from  the  ravages  of  the  jaguar 
and  puma.  Frequently  their  gardens  are  completely  destroyed 
by  a flight  of  locusts.  But  all  these  calamities  they  bear  cheer- 
fully, and  they  are  of  such  a buoyant  nature  that  they  soon  get 
over  their  troubles  and  difficulties.  It  is  providential  that  it  is 
so,  otherwise  their  existence,  miserable  as  it  is  in  many  other 
respects,  would  be  sad  to  contemplate.  They  are  remarkable 
people  for  making  the  best  of  their  circumstances  under  all  con- 
ditions and  for  extracting  all  the  pleasure  they  can  from  a life 
which  to  many  of  us  would  be  little  better  than  a living  death. 

Their  humour  is  of  a peculiar  kind,  but  I cannot  say  that  it 
is  of  a very  high  order — in  fact,  it  is  rather  childish.  They 
break  into  peals  of  laughter  over  the  slightest  misfortune  that 

197 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


befalls  their  fellows,  such  as  stumbling  over  a palm-stump,  being 
thrown  from  a horse,  slipping  in  a mud-hole,  or  any  other  trivial 
accident.  But  if  anyone  is  hurt,  their  countenances  immediately 
change,  and  they  are  full  of  sympathy  and  kindness. 

Unlike  the  Spaniards  of  South  America,  who  are  extremely 
polite  to  the  foreigner  when  he  makes  mistakes  in  speaking  their 
language,  the  Indians  roar  with  laughter  when  a wrong  expres- 
sion is  used.  In  conversation,  they  are  always  on  the  alert  to 
observe  anything  funny,  and  that  not  only  with  the  foreigner, 
but  also  among  themselves. 

Their  field  of  thought  being  very  limited,  they  are  continually 
seeking  to  draw  comparisons  between  any  remark  made  and 
some  object  in  Nature.  For  example,  when  describing  the  ap- 
pearance of  some  foreigner  to  them,  I remarked  that  he  was 
very  tall  and  thin.  They  instantly  laughed,  and  two  or  three 
exclaimed  : “Just  like  a palm-tree  !”  I then  said  that  he  had 
a long  flowing  beard.  There  was  another  roar  of  laughter,  and 
one  cried  out : “ Just  like  a billy-goat !”  On  one  occasion  I was 
telling  them  about  a comet,  and  they  at  once  joked  about  its 
tail  being  long,  like  that  of  a monkey. 

They  are  quick  to  observe  anything  peculiar  in  the  dress  or 
person  of  an  individual,  and  most  of  their  nicknames  are  based 
upon  such  peculiarities.  They  excel  in  story-telling,  mostly  of  a 
humorous  nature,  and  accompanied  by  much  theatrical  gesture. 

While  it  is  very  difficult  to  win  their  confidence,  yet  when 
once  you  have  acquired  it,  they  trust  you  implicitly,  and  prove 
loyal  and  true.  The  popular  idea  seems  to  be  that  an  Indian  is 
a treacherous  fellow,  on  whom  no  reliance  can  be  placed,  and 
who,  although  he  may  appear  a friend  for  a time,  is  only  so  for 
his  own  sake,  and  will  sooner  or  later  turn  against  you. 

My  own  experience,  and  that  of  my  colleagues,  has  been  that 
as  a people  they  are  no  more  treacherous  than  any  other  race. 
Firmly,  but  justly,  dealt  with,  they  have  proved  themselves  well 
worthy  of  our  trust.  So  firm  is  their  reliance  in  us,  and  so  strong 
is  their  belief  that  we  seek  their  good,  that  for  many  years  past 
they  have  clung  to  us  through  all  our  vicissitudes.  Many  times 
we  have  found  it  necessary  to  make  them  abandon  their  villages, 

188 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


which  they  had  built  on  improved  methods  under  our  instruc- 
tion, and  which  had  entailed  some  years  of  arduous  work  ; yet, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  had  settled  down  comfortably 
and  were  quite  content,  they  cheerfully  left  everything  behind, 
and  moved  to  other  localities  which  we  thought  more  suitable 
situations  for  them  to  develop  in. 

They  unhesitatingly  accepted  the  foundation  of  their  co- 
operative society  and  savings  bank,  the  real  benefit  of  which  they 
did  not  experience  for  some  time  after,  and  not  only  handed  over 
to  our  care  what  animals  they  possessed,  but  also  the  savings 
which  had  cost  them  much  self-denial  to  accumulate. 

When  complications  have  arisen  between  the  Indians  and 
foreigners,  I have  always  found  them  to  have  originated  in  the 
Indian’s  lack  of  confidence  in  the  foreigner.  This  distrust  arises 
from  various  causes.  For  example,  if  a foreigner  acts  insincerely  or 
appears  to  break  a compact,  the  Indian  feels  justified  in  acting 
in  a like  manner  towards  him.  The  white  man  at  once  regards 
this  as  treachery,  failing  to  realize  that  he  himself  is  really  to 
blame.  The  foreigner  may  not  wilfully  intend  to  deceive  the 
Indian  or  act  inconsistently,  but  from  his  want  of  knowledge  of 
Indian  character,  he  is  not  able  to  explain  his  actions,  and  thus 
his  motives  are  misconstrued. 

The  life  of  an  Indian  would  be  almost  intolerable  in  such  a 
country  as  the  Chaco  were  it  not  for  his  characteristic  patience 
and  self-control  in  the  face  of  the  most  adverse  circumstances. 
The  conditions  of  their  country  and  climate  are  so  unfavourable, 
they  have  so  few  resources,  and  their  life  is  so  primitive,  that  it 
is  only  by  the  most  patient  labour  and  calm  endurance  of 
suffering  they  are  enabled  to  live. 

Travelling  and  hunting  in  the  Chaco  are  experiences  of  the 
most  trying  nature.  The  greater  part  of  the  day  is  often  spent 
by  these  Indians  wading  in  the  swamps  in  search  of  fish,  a 
burning  tropical  sun  overhead,  and  myriads  of  poisonous  insects 
continually  harassing  them.  They  have  to  spend  days  on  the 
banks  of  a river,  while  with  their  rude  instruments  they  fashion 
a dug-out  canoe  by  which  to  cross.  Their  agriculture  is  carried 
on  with  the  most  primitive  wooden  diggers,  which  have  taken 

199 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


them  days  to  manufacture.  Even  their  ornaments  entail 
laborious  and  patient  toil. 

They  are  exposed  to  all  the  vicissitudes  of  weather — the 
burning  sun  by  day  and  often  drenching  showers  of  tropical 
rain  by  night.  They  frequently  suffer  from  fever  and  chills, 
and  for  nights  in  succession  are  unable  to  sleep  owing  to  the 
insect  pests.  It  is  a by  no  means  uncommon  sight  to  see  a poor 
woman,  seated  all  night  long  on  the  wet  ground  in  pouring  rain, 
nursing  her  dying  child,  powerless  to  relieve  its  sufferings  or 
save  its  life.  Under  such  and  many  other  miserable  conditions 
I have  never  known  them  to  show  signs  of  impatience,  and 
seldom  do  they  lose  their  habitual  good-humour.  It  contrasts 
strangely  with  the  want  of  endurance  which  we  sometimes 
exhibit  under  similar  conditions,  and  the  Indian  is  very  quick 
to  remark  on  our  poor-spirited  behaviour.  An  instance  in  my 
own  experience  will  illustrate  this.  One  day,  when  travelling 
with  a party  of  Indians,  we  camped  during  the  mid-day  heat 
near  a forest.  The  mosquitos  and  sand-flies  were  unbearable, 
and  I could  not  control  my  irritation.  This  greatly  amused 
the  Indians,  and  they  asked  me  why  I was  angry.  I told  them 
that  the  reason  was  very  obvious.  On  this  they  asked  me  if  I 
knew  the  language  of  the  mosquito.  “ Because  if  you  do,” 
they  said,  “ it  would  be  wise  to  speak  hard  words  to  them.” 
This  was  to  illustrate  the  wise  maxim  which  the  Indian  fulfils 
in  his  daily  life — “ What  cannot  be  cured  must  be  endured.” 
These  same  characteristics  were  observed  by  Dobrizhoffer  in  the 
Southern  Indians  nearly  two  centuries  ago,  and  he  aptly 
remarks  : “ What  we  denominate  patience  is  nature  with 
them  — unlike  Europeans,  who  at  the  smallest  inconvenience 
get  out  of  humour,  grow  angry,  and,  since  they  cannot  bend 
heaven  to  their  will,  call  upon  hell.” 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  Indians  are  very  taciturn  and 
unemotional.  The  exact  contrary,  however,  is  the  case.  It  is 
true  that  they  endeavour  to  hide  their  feelings,  because  it  is 
good  manners  to  do  so,  but  deep,  strong  emotion  is  there 
nevertheless.  To  anyone  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
Indian,  there  is  no  mistaking  the  dancing  joy  in  the  eye  when 

200 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


friend  meets  friend,  or  the  genuine  smothered  sobs  when  they 
stand  by  the  grave-side  of  a beloved  relative  or  companion ; in 
fact,  I have  known  men  unable  to  attend  a funeral,  owing  to  the 
poignancy  of  their  grief.  At  the  sight  of  suffering  I have  seen 
strong  men,  in  spite  of  themselves,  burst  into  tears.  On  one 
occasion,  while  cutting  a road  thi’ough  a palm-forest,  an  Indian 
let  a tall  palm-tree  accidentally  fall  upon  one  of  the  party, 
breaking  his  leg.  The  man  who  cut  down  the  tree,  on  realizing 
what  had  happened,  stood  over  his  friend  and  wept  bitterly. 

The  Indian  character  is  particularly  difficult  to  understand, 
for  it  is  full  of  contradictions — kindness  and  cruelty,  gentleness 
and  harshness,  unselfishness  and  greed,  courage  and  timidity, 
strong  affection  and  callousness,  emotion  and  stoicism,  being 
often  found  strongly  marked  side  by  side  in  the  same  individual. 
This  very  man,  for  instance,  who  wept  over  his  injured  friend, 
himself,  on  a previous  occasion,  when  badly  burnt  by  the  ex- 
plosion of  a can  of  powder,  coolly  remarked,  while  looking  at 
his  injuries,  Oh,  how  is  this  ?”  and,  in  spite  of  his  suffering,  he 
did  not  even  utter  a moan. 

We  have  to  be  very  careful  indeed,  when  appealing  to  their 
religious  feelings,  to  avoid  sensationalism,  for  they  are  easily 
worked  upon,  and  the  result  would  be  a superficial  rather  than 
a permanent  gain. 

In  some  phases  of  his  life  the  Indian  appears  to  exhibit  con- 
siderable courage,  while  in  others  he  shows  just  as  marked  a 
timidity.  In  reality  he  is  brave  in  facing  a danger  which  he 
thoroughly  understands,  but  his  lack  of  intelligence,  training 
and  education,  his  superstitions  and  his  desire  to  stand  well 
with  his  neighbours,  frequently  urge  him  on  to  cowardly  acts.  I 
have  seen  an  Indian  very  much  upset  by  a trivial  wound,  simply 
because  there  was  much  bleeding  from  it,  and  the  whole  look  of 
it  was  alarming.  On  the  other  hand,  a really  dangerous  injury, 
which,  however,  was  not  unsightly  to  the  eye,  the  sufferer  took 
quite  calmly.  A grave  injury  is  very  often  accompanied  by  a 
severe  shock,  and,  the  nerves  being  dulled,  little  or  no  pain  is  felt. 
In  such  a case,  the  Indian  onlookers  treat  it  lightly,  whereas 
a less  serious  injury,  attended  by  great  pain,  they  imagine  to 

201 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

be  very  severe  indeed.  This,  of  course,  is  the  result  of  in- 
adequate knowledge. 

In  the  hunt,  however,  even  in  the  case  of  the  more  dangerous 
animals,  they  display  calmness  and  courage,  because  they 
thoroughly  understand  the  difficulties  which  have  to  be  faced. 
They  will  readily  oppose  themselves  in  combat  with  hostile 
tribes  when  they  fully  understand  their  enemies,  but  shrink 
from  facing  an  unknown  danger.  When  armed  with  only  bows 
and  arrows,  they  fear  to  engage  with  a force  armed  with  inferior 
muzzle-loading  guns,  whereas  in  reality  the  latter  are  a greater 
danger  to  those  who  use  them  than  to  those  against  whom  they 
are  directed,  and  the  former  in  the  hands  of  Indians  are  really 
very  efficient  and  deadly  weapons. 

In  the  question  of  moral  courage  they  are  decidedly  weak, 
but  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  in  the  course  of  time, 
with  adequate  training,  they  will  acquire  moral  force.  Instances 
of  moral  courage  have  been  known  among  them,  which  leads  us 
to  be  hopeful  of  the  future.  To  give  only  one  illustration  : 
I was  once  robbed  of  some  grease,  and  appealed  to  the  Chief  of 
the  village  to  assist  in  discovering  the  thief.  After  a time  he 
returned,  and  said  that  several  of  the  women  had  seen  a dog  in 
my  hut,  and  that  when  they  chased  it  out,  it  had  grease  upon 
its  mouth.  The  Chief’s  son  was  standing  by,  and  he  boldly 
said  : “ It  is  a lie ; my  father  is  the  dog.”  I had  committed 
the  care  of  my  hut  to  this  young  fellow,  and  he  therefore  felt 
morally  bound  to  defend  my  interests,  though  he  knew  that  he 
would  incur  the  enmity  of  his  people  for  making  this  statement. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  superstitious  fears  of  these 
people  have  such  a strong  hold  over  them  as  not  only  to  affect 
their  judgment,  but  even  to  undermine  the  very  manhood  of 
the  race. 

As  a people  they  are  excessively  jealous,  so  much  so  that  they 
avoid  all  rivalry  and  competition  among  themselves,  and  even 
in  their  games  this  is  very  noticeable.  If  one  excels  another, 
whether  in  games,  the  chase,  apparel,  or  even  in  forming  friend- 
ships, instead  of  the  vanquished  trying  to  regain  his  lost  ground, 
he  is  content  to  give  way  to  brooding  jealousy.  We  have,  there- 

202 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


fore,  to  be  very  careful  not  to  encourage  this  by  any  act  of  our 
own,  and  to  abstain  from  making  favourites.  In  dealing  generally 
with  the  people,  we  treat  heathen  and  Christian  alike  as  far  as 
possible,  in  order  chiefly  to  avoid  giving  any  encouragement  to 
an  Indian  to  accept  Christianity  for  the  sake  of  temporal 
advantage. 


t66thli  clay  vessel,  painted. 


203 


CHAPTER  XXI 


MORALS 

It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  name  “ Indian  ” generally 
siiggests  to  the  European  mind  three  shortcomings  of  which  he 
is  supposed  to  be  guilty — drunkenness,  deceitfulness,  and  dis- 
honesty. It  is  this  threefold  attribute  which  in  popular  opinion 
seems  to  put  him  outside  the  pale  of  ordinary  intercourse  with 
society.  In  dealing  with  this  subject  I wish  to  write  without 
any  bias,  and  shall  state  my  opinions  here,  as  elsewhere,  purely 
from  the  standpoint  of  my  many  years  of  close  association  with 
every  phase  of  Indian  life,  during  which  ample  opportunity  has 
been  given  me  of  making  more  than  a superficial  examination 
of  the  underlying  facts. 

Drunkenness  is  not  one  of  their  vices.  Although  various 
intoxicating  liquors  are  manufactured  by  the  Chaco  tribes,  and 
although  the  materials  are  so  abundant  that  they  could,  if  they 
desired,  indulge  in  these  drinks  all  the  year  round,  they  never- 
theless confine  the  use  of  them  to  festive  occasions  only.  The 
male  adults  alone  are  permitted  to  partake  ; the  women  and 
lads  are  not  only  debarred,  but  never  even  have  the  desire  to 
taste  intoxicants.  They  admit  that  their  only  reason  for 
becoming  intoxicated  is  to  excite  and  stimulate  themselves,  with 
a view  to  promoting  sociability.  The  only  occasion  when  drink 
is  used  other  than  at  a feast  is  in  the  very  rare  event  of  an 
execution.  They  then,  out  of  kindness,  always  make  the  victim 
drunk  before  proceeding  to  kill  him. 

For  the  last  ten  years,  in  particular,  these  Indians  have  come 
into  frequent  and  intimate  contact  with  the  foreigners  on  the 
River  Paraguay,  and  the  latter  have  for  the  sake  of  gain 


MORALS 


endeavoured  to  induce  them  to  take  to  the  use  of  the  cheap  rum 
of  the  country,  yet  only  a small  proportion  have  given  way  to 
the  temptation.  They  realize  that  this  foreign  rum  is  highly 
injurious,  and  admit  its  evil  effects,  although  they  speak  well  of 
their  own  manufacture.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  their  native 
beer,  although  intoxicating,  is  comparatively  harmless. 

An  amusing  incident  will  show  their  opinion  of  the  foreign 
beverage.  An  old  Chief  living  near  the  River  Paraguay  had 
given  way  very  greatly  to  the  rum  craving.  He  came  in  one 
day  to  my  hut  in  a drunken  condition.  When  he  kindly 
asked  me  how  I was,  I replied  that  I was  suffering  from  a very 
severe  headache.  “ Ah,”  said  he,  “ I told  you  that  Paraguayan 
rum  was  no  good,  but  you  won’t  drink  our  stuff.”  He  spoke 
feelingly,  and  evidently  thought  that  my  headache  had  the 
same  origin  as  many  of  his  own. 

A peculiar  form  of  madness  is  occasionally  to  be  met  with 
among  the  Indians.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  hereditary,  nor  is 
it  the  result  of  drink  or  vice.  As  far  as  I have  been  able  to 
learn  it  is  attributable  to  four  causes — fright,  brain  fever,  the 
sun,  and  the  secret  administration  of  poison  by  the  witch-doctors 
to  those  whom  they  desire  to  injure. 

Sufferers  from  this  malady  evince  a strong  desire  to  be  alone, 
and  when  the  attack  is  severe  they  rush  away  into  the  woods. 
They  eat  and  drink  little,  and  seem  to  take  hardly  any  rest  or 
sleep.  They  appear  to  lose  all  fear  of  evil  spirits,  and  do  not 
hesitate  to  frequent  haunted  places,  nor  do  they  seem  to  fear 
wild  animals.  When  in  this  state  they  frequently  violate  all 
Indian  ideas  of  decency,  one  man  having  been  reported  to  have 
dug  up  the  bones  of  his  father  and  to  have  gnawed  them  like  a 
dog. 

They  not  infrequently  develop  homicidal  tendencies,  and  are 
consequently  held  in  great  fear  by  the  people,  especially  as  at 
night  in  particular  they  are  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  the 
villages,  through  which  they  have  been  known  to  rush  in  a 
naked  and  maniacal  state. 

One  curious  story  was  told  me — the  truth  of  which,  however, 
I cannot  vouch  for — of  a woman  who  was  supposed  to  have 

205 


MORALS 


escaped  from  her  grave,  but  was  never  seen  again.  Her  foot- 
prints were  observed  erratically  diverging  from  the  path,  some- 
times entering  a wood  and  sometimes  apparently  running  in 
the  open  country.  It  is  just  possible  that  this  story  may  be 
true,  for  granted  that  the  severer  rites  of  burial  had  not  been 
performed,  and  that  the  woman  had  sufficient  strength,  it  would 
be  no  difficult  matter  for  her  to  free  herself  from  the  shallow, 
lightly-filled  grave.  From  what  we  know  of  the  Indians,  it  is 
not  at  all  unlikely  that  a person  might  be  buried  alive ; and  in 
the  event  of  this  woman  escaping  from  her  grave,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  madness  would  result,  and  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
many  similarly  afflicted,  she  would  fall  a victim  to  the  wild 
beasts  of  the  forest. 

As  a people  they  are  certainly  not  truthful ; in  fact,  one 
hesitates  to  believe  what  a heathen  Indian  says.  The  only 
method  of  arriving  at  the  truth  is  to  cross-question,  calculate, 
and  weigh  his  statement,  and  to  try  to  probe  his  motives. 
Nevertheless,  they  always  regard  lying  with  contempt,  and  one 
of  their  most  bitter  retorts  is  “ You  are  a liar,”  or  in  their 
language,  “ Wanchik  amyaa,”  which  means  “ able  . . . news,” 
implying  able  to  exaggerate,  distort,  or  falsify  the  news.  The 
tone  they  use  when  referring  to  a man  as  a liar  is  one  of  disgust 
and  impatience,  as  much  as  to  say,  “ It  is  no  good  paying  any 
attention  to  what  he  says.”  Perhaps  it  is  not  strange  that  they 
despise  lying,  because  even  among  ourselves  we  find  the  rule 
that  men  hate  in  others  the  very  sin  of  which  they  are  them- 
selves guilty. 

This  national  untruthfulness  of  the  Indian  is  not  practised 
simply  for  the  sake  of  telling  lies,  because  they  quite  appreciate 
the  awkwardness  of  never  being  able  to  accept  unquestionably 
the  word  of  another,  and  they  greatly  admire  the  foreigner,  who 
insists  on  his  yea  being  yea  and  his  nay,  nay.  They  know  at  once 
where  they  stand  with  regard  to  him,  and  they  like  it  rather 
than  resent  it. 

One  reason  why  the  Indian  lies  is,  again,  because  of  his  con- 
stitutional desire  to  be  agreeable.  He  hesitates  to  tell  the 
truth  because  he  dislikes  giving  offence  when  he  knows  the  truth 

206 


An  Old  Woman  of  the  North-West  Clan  known  as  the 
“ White  Partridges  ” (Mopai-senhik) 


Her  probable  age  is  between  80  and  90  years. 


MORALS 


would  be  unpleasant.  Then  again  he  lies  because  his  neighbour 
lies,  and  so  he  lies  in  self-defence.  Another  reason  is  that  he 
is  very  fond  of  conversation,  and  delights  in  sensational  news ; 
but  Indian  life  is  so  monotonous  and  uneventful  that  in  order 
to  raise  an  interesting  conversation,  it  is  necessary  for  him  to 
exaggerate  wildly.  It  is  quite  understood  that  no  one  believes 
what  he  says.  Still,  his  exaggerations  please,  and  while  away 
an  hour.  They  find  also  a great  pleasure  in  trying  to  cap  the 
lie  in  turn.  The  fact  is  that  this  form  of  news-telling  takes  the 
place  among  these  people  of  “ penny  dreadfuls,”  trashy  novels, 
and  sensational  newspaper  articles. 

As  life  among  them  is  lived  in  accordance  with  socialistic 
principles,  the  Indian  finds  it  unprofitable  to  tell  the  truth 
under  certain  circumstances,  such  as  this  : A party  of  visitors 
arrive  at  a village  hungry  and  tired.  They  inquire  feelingly 
after  the  welfare  of  the  gardens  in  that  locality,  and  exhibit  a 
significant  interest  in  the  game-supply,  and  express  the  hope 
that  their  friends  live  a happy  and  comfortable  life,  and  do  not 
suffer  from  shortness  of  rations,  as  they  do  in  their  part  of  the 
country.  If  the  villagers  were  to  acknowledge  the  truth  that 
they  are  well  supplied,  it  would  be  most  comforting  news  to  the 
visitors,  because  by  native  law  they  would  have  to  entertain 
them  accordingly.  They  know  only  too  well  that  if  they  con- 
fessed to  abundant  supplies,  the  visitors  would  prolong  their 
stay  until  such  time  as  the  food  was  exhausted,  for  their  rules  of 
etiquette  forbid  them  to  speed  even  the  unwelcome  guest. 

They  know,  too,  that  their  visitors  have  not  told  the  truth  in 
their  humble  statement  that  their  part  of  the  country  is  poor 
and  unproductive;  so  they  in  turn  are  quick  to  assure  them 
that  their  crops  that  year  have  proved  a failure ; that  game, 
owing  to  the  evil  action  of  the  spirits,  is  practically  non- 
existent ; and  that  they  themselves  are  on  the  verge  of  starva- 
tion. They  constantly  go  out  of  their  way  to  say  how  deeply 
they  regret  that  they  are  in  such  miserable  circumstances,  and 
that  they  are  therefore  unable  to  offer  more  than  a meagre 
entertainment  to  their  much-loved  and  welcome  guests.  The 
visitors  are  perfectly  aware  that  there  is  not  a word  of  truth  in 

207 


MORALS 


all  this,  but  politeness  makes  it  impossible  for  them  to  contra- 
dict their  hosts.  They  have,  therefore,  to  be  content  with  what 
little  they  get,  and  push  on  next  day,  greatly  to  the  relief  of 
the  villagers. 

The  Indians  have  a great  propensity  for  scandal,  but  this  is 
common  in  all  small  communities,  and  perhaps  there  is  really 
no  more  backbiting  and  tale-bearing  among  them  than  in  some 
civilized  circles.  The  Indian,  though  essentially  a religious  being, 
would,  I fear,  not  take  kindly  to  the  confessional.  He  has  no 
objection  whatever  to  confess  the  sins  of  his  companions,  whether 
genuine  or  invented,  but  his  pride — so  proverbial  in  the  savage — 
restrains  him  very  powerfully  from  confessing  his  own  shortcom- 
ings. So  well  is  this  tale-bearing  understood  that,  although  it 
causes  heart-burning,  no  one  who  knows  the  people  would  ever 
think  of  judging  an  Indian  by  the  scandal  in  circulation  about 
him. 

Scandal  about  each  other  is  not  circulated  with  the  same 
object  as  their  exaggeration  of  news  leads  to — namely,  to  make 
their  conversation  entertaining.  Mere  exaggeration  irritates  no 
one,  but  scandal  does,  and  when  the  Indian  gives  way  to  it,  it  is 
with  a purpose.  He  does  so  either  from  revenge  or  to  gain  his 
own  ends.  A native,  for  example,  has  stolen  something.  He 
knows  that,  if  discovered,  he  will  get  into  serious  trouble,  so 
in  course  of  conversation  he  expresses  his  grief  at  having  to 
insinuate  such  a charge,  but  he  has  grave  suspicions  that  So- 
and-so  has  been  guilty  of  the  theft.  In  this  way  he  tries  to 
ward  off  suspicion  from  himself. 

Sometimes  this  desire  to  save  himself  at  the  expense  of  an- 
other ends  rather  awkwardly  and  ludicrously  for  the  culprit. 
On  one  occasion  a very  plausible,  oily-mannered  savage  of  my 
acquaintance  was  employed  by  me  as  cook.  I had  a quantity 
of  charqui  drying  in  the  sun  on  a line.  During  my  siesta  this 
man  was  ordered  to  keep  a strict  watch  upon  the  meat,  in  case 
of  any  thieving.  After  my  rest,  he  came  smilingly  towards  me, 
remarking  that  it  had  been  a great  effort  for  him  to  keep  awake 
during  the  hot  midday  hours,  but  that  his  fidelity  and  love  for 
me,  and  his  interest  in  my  meat,  had  been  so  great  that  he  had 

208 


MORALS 

succeeded  in  overcoming  his  drowsiness,  and  it  was  well  that  he 
had,  because  a large  dog  had  come  along  while  he  was  absent  for 
a few  moments,  and  had  walked  off  with  some  of  the  meat,  and 
he  showed  me  the  empty  space  on  the  line.  In  his  hand  he  held 
a few  strips  of  dirt-bedraggled  meat,  and  told  me  that  it  was  all 
he  had  been  able  to  rescue  from  the  dog. 

I had  my  suspicions,  and  accordingly  met  guile  with  guile. 

I thanked  him  warmly  for  his  interest,  telling  him  that  he  was 
a good  fellow,  and  in  friendly  Indian  style  I embraced  him 
round  the  waist,  at  the  same  time  feeling  in  the  folds  of  his 
blanket.  I then  exclaimed  : “ Hulloa  ! what  is  this  ?”  and  pulled 
out,  much  to  his  confusion,  a handful  of  the  meat  which  the  dog 
was  accused  of  stealing.  Though  these  instances  may  reflect 
rather  seriously  on  the  Indian  character,  yet  it  may  be  said  in 
extenuation  that  for  a real  friend  he  would  often  willingly  bear 
blame,  and  would  not  shrink  from  lying  to  defend  him. 

The  Indian  is  peculiar  in  some  of  his  traits  of  character.  If 
you  doubt  his  word  when  he  denies  having  committed  some 
offence,  he  will  repeat  his  denial  two  or  three  times  ; if  you  still 
doubt  him,  he  will  admit  to  having  told  a falsehood,  and  will 
even  exaggerate  the  offence,  and  will  say  that  he  has  been 
guilty  not  only  of  this,  but  of  many  others,  although  in  reality 
he  has  not  committed  any  of  them.  It  amounts  to  this  : “ If 
you  will  not  believe  me,”  he  says,  “ when  I speak  the  truth,  and 
will  only  be  satisfied  with  lies,  I will  lie  as  much  as  you  like,  to 
please  you.”  There  is  a great  deal  of  truth  in  the  Irishman’s 
statement,  that  “ a lie  ceases  to  be  a lie,  if  it  is  a big  enough 
one.”  A lie  is  essentially  intended  to  deceive,  and  the  sin  of 
lying  is  in  the  evil  that  results  from  deceit.  It  is  not  essentially 
a lie  when  a man  says  “ it  is  raining  cats  and  dogs,”  for  no  one 
but  a child  would  misunderstand  the  figure  of  speech.  There- 
fore when  an  Indian  really  tells  the  truth,  but  on  being  doubted 
and  pressed,  admits  to  having  committed  an  impossible  amount 
of  crime,  he  is  simply  working  on  the  logical  system  of  reducing 
the  thing  to  an  absurdity.  The  Indian  argues  it  in  this  way  : 
“ It  is  evident  it  is  not  the  truth  you  want,  but  falsehood,  and 
as  this  is  so,  you  shall  have  as  much  as  you  want.”  The  instances 

209 


o 


MORALS 


given  above  may  be  classed  as  polite  lying  to  visitors,  lying  to 
screen  from  blame,  and  sarcastic  lying. 

Although  the  Indian  has  much  practice  in  telling  falsehoods, 
he  is  not  an  adept  at  it,  for  when  once  you  thoroughly  know 
him,  he  tells  the  truth  by  his  face  and  manner,  when  lying  with 
his  lips.  It  is  certainly  folly  to  try  and  worm  the  truth  out  of 
an  Indian  by  persistent  cross-questioning,  and  doubting  him. 
A great  deal  of  his  lying  disposition  is  the  result  of  weak 
character  and  want  of  individual  independence,  the  result  of  old 
social  conditions.  Now  that  they  are  becoming  a Christian  and 
self-reliant  people,  they  are  proportionately  more  truthful. 

As  far  as  dishonesty  is  concerned,  the  worst  enemy  of  the 
Lenguas  could  not  accuse  them  of  being  a thieving  nation. 
Among  themselves  they  are  fairly  honest,  and  any  attempt  at 
pilfering  is  severely  censured.  I have  even  heard  of  one  case 
in  which  an  habitual  thief  was  put  to  death,  when  all  means  of 
curing  him  failed. 

We  have  lived  among  them  for  twenty  years,  and  our  houses 
are  of  such  a nature  that  they  could  easily  be  entered,  and  even 
our  lock-fasts  would  offer  a poor  resistance  to  any  native 
desirous  of  breaking  into  them,  and  yet  we  have  had  very  little 
reason  to  complain  of  stealing  on  the  pai’t  of  the  Indians. 
When  such  a thing  has  occurred,  I must  confess  that  it  has 
been  chiefly  due  to  our  own  carelessness  in  putting  unnecessary 
temptation  in  their  way. 

Our  animals — sheep,  goats,  horses,  and  cattle — have  never 
been  wilfully  interfered  with,  although  they  roam  over  a large 
extent  of  wild  country.  Only  on  one  or  two  occasions  have  the 
natives  appropriated  our  animals,  and  that  unwittingly,  and  in 
every  case  that  I can  remember  except  one,  we  have  received 
compensation.  In  times  of  drought,  some  of  our  animals  have 
wandered  to  such  great  distances  that  we  have  never  recovered 
them.  Naturally  we  cannot  say  definitely  what  became  of 
them,  as  they  may  have  become  mixed  up  with  the  cattle  of 
the  Paraguayans  at  the  river,  or  killed  by  wild  beasts,  or  possibly 
by  hungry  parties  of  Indians,  who  were  unacquainted  with  our 
stock.  They  have,  during  recent  years,  killed  cattle  belonging 

210  " 


MORALS 


to  the  Paraguayans,  but  in  many  cases  this  has  been  done  to 
settle  old  scores,  and  this  the  Indian  would  not  regard  as 
stealing. 

We  have  always  found  them  exact  in  paying  a debt,  and 
oftentimes  an  Indian  has  arrived  at  our  stations,  and  presented 
payment  for  something  he  had  received  from  us  years  before, 
and  which  we  had  altogether  forgotten. 

Among  themselves  they  have  a system  of  reservation.  If  a 
native  sees  a tree  containing  honey,  or  a bottle-trunk  tree  suit- 
able for  a canoe,  a fruit-tree,  a patch  of  garden-ground,  a 
collection  of  fire-wood,  a nest,  a patch  of  fibre-plants  or  the 
like,  he  notifies  his  people  that  he  has  appropriated  it,  and  they 
all  respect  such  ear-marking. 

Travelling  through  the  country,  we  frequently  pass  by  a 
village,  deserted  for  a time  by  its  inhabitants,  who  may  be  on  a 
hunting  expedition,  or  at  a neighbouring  feast.  In  this  village, 
lying  about  within  sight  of  any  passers-by,  we  often  find  a 
number  of  household  goods,  weapons,  implements,  and  even  the 
products  of  the  chase,  which  they  intend  eventually  to  barter, 
and  which  they  have  left  behind  for  convenience.  Rarely  do  we 
hear  of  an  Indian  missing  any  of  such  property.  This  surely 
speaks  volumes  for  the  common  honesty  of  the  people. 

It  is  perhaps  natural  that  these  so-called  savages  should  be 
generally  regarded  as  a cruel  and  stern  people,  and  possessed  of 
a hard  nature,  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  case.  The  Indian  is 
undoubtedly  undemonstrative  in  manner,  with  an  austere 
bearing,  but  a close  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  him  reveals 
a great  amount  of  fine  feeling  and  kindness  of  heart,  deep 
though  this  may  be  beneath  the  surface.  I have  had  ample 
opportunity  of  noting  many  generous  actions  done,  not  only 
between  themselves,  but  also  for  us,  whom  they  have  learnt  to 
trust  and  regard  as  their  friends. 

I once  knew  an  Indian  Chief  who  lost  his  wife,  and  as  he 
could  no  longer  bear  to  remain  in  the  same  place  bereft  of  her 
company,  he  travelled  east  to  the  River  Paraguay,  to  get  away 
from  the  old  associations,  taking  with  him  his  daughter  and 
some  of  his  followers.  In  this,  he  was  not  simply  carrying  out 

211 


MORALS 


the  Indian  rule  of  at  once  abandoning  a place  where  a death  has 
taken  place,  impelled  by  his  superstitious  fears,  but  there  was  a 
deeper  feeling  of  grief  behind  it.  Misfortune  dogged  him  to 
his  new  encampment,  for  he  had  only  been  there  a few  weeks, 
when  his  daughter  died.  She  was  about  twenty-four  years  of 
age,  and  his  only  child.  This  loss  so  upset  him  that  he  at  once 
began  the  return  journey  to  the  west.  He  only  travelled  about 
thirty-five  miles,  to  a place  called  Sohoyamathla.  On  arrival 
there  his  grief  completely  overcame  him.  He  sought  out  a 
venomous  snake  and  allowed  it  to  bite  him  in  several  places,  and, 
refusing  all  help,  he  shortly  afterwards  died  in  great  agony. 

I was  much  touched  by  the  thoughtfulness  and  unselfishness 
of  an  Indian  who  once  visited  my  camp.  He  was  a man  from  a 
far-distant  village,  and  had  remained  with  me  for  a few  weeks. 
As  he  had  been  helpful  in  many  ways,  I gave  him  a few  luxuries 
to  eat  when  he  came  to  say  good-bye.  These  consisted  of  a 
few  lumps  of  sugar  and  four  hard  biscuits.  He  ate  one  of  the 
latter,  and  putting  the  other  three  into  his  waist-bag,  he  said 
he  would  take  them  to  his  mother  and  his  wife.  I told  him  to 
eat  the  sugar,  as  it  was  sweet  like  honey,  and  that  he  would 
enjoy  it.  He  ate  one  lump  rather  suspiciously,  but  was 
delighted  with  the  taste,  and  I expected  him  to  eat  the 
remainder,  but  he  put  them  also  into  his  bag,  saying,  “ How 
pleased  my  little  child  will  be  with  these  !”  Although  this  man 
must  have  been  often  hungry  on  his  long  tramp  of  quite  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  to  the  west,  yet  he  kept  these  few 
luxuries  for  those  whom  he  loved. 

In  the  event  of  an  Indian  being  bitten  by  a snake,  although 
he  was  a stranger  and  at  a village  thirty  or  forty  miles  away,  I 
have  known  natives  hurry  off  to  render  assistance,  and  sit  up 
cjuite  cheerfully  for  one  or  two  nights,  doing  all  that  their 
scant  knowledge  afforded  to  relieve  him  and  if  possible  save 
his  life.  And  this  they  will  do  without  any  personal  gain 
whatever  to  themselves,  but  out  of  pure  disinterested  human 
kindness. 

I have  myself  experienced  many  gracious  and  thoughtful 
actions  from  Indians.  Once,  when  at  Thlagnasinkinmith,  I was 

212 


MORALS 


soaked  to  the  skin,  and  sat  shivering  in  the  cold  south  wind. 
My  Indian  companions  were  in  no  better  case,  but  a Chief,  who 
was  crouching  over  the  fire,  took  off  a kind  of  shirt  which  he 
wore,  and  which  was  fairly  dry,  and  insisted  upon  my  putting 
it  on. 

On  another  occasion  I was  sleeping  with  some  Indians  on  the 
wet  sodden  banks  of  a stream.  I was  lying  near  the  camp-fire, 
but  the  little  covering  I had  was  not  sufficient  to  keep  me 
warm,  and  I could  only  get  fitful  sleep.  An  Indian  who  was 
lying  near  me,  not  knowing  that  I was  awake  at  the  time,  rose 
up  and  took  off  his  own  blanket,  and,  after  stealthily  spreading 
it  over  me,  he  brought  the  fire  nearer  to  where  I was  lying. 
He  was  content  to  lie  down  near  the  fire,  naked  as  he  was  and 
exposed  to  the  cold,  damp  night  air,  and  settled  down  to  pass 
the  night  as  best  he  could  with  such  warmth  only  as  the  fire 
afforded.  I watched  him  for  a little  while,  but  could  not  submit 
to  deprive  him  of  his  only  covering ; so,  pretending  to  wake 
up  and  to  discover  what  had  taken  place,  I offered  to  give  it 
back,  but  he  would  not  accept  it.  I then  insisted  on  his  lying 
down  with  me  and  sharing  it,  which  he  eventually  did. 

The  Indian  is  essentially  polite  in  his  own  peculiar  way,  and 
his  is  no  superficial  politeness.  When  Bishop  Stirling  and  his 
wife  visited  me  at  Riacho  Fernandez,  the  Indians  realized  that 
he  was  a great  Chief,  and  were  careful  to  treat  their  visitors 
accordingly.  In  crossing  to  the  island  in  a dug-out  canoe,  when 
we  approached  the  land,  the  Indian  in  the  bow  jumped  ashore, 
and  was  about  to  offer  his  hands  to  Mrs.  Stirling  to  help  her 
out,  when  he  suddenly  remembered  that  they  were  covered  with 
dirt  and  the  fat  of  some  fish  which  he  had  just  been  eating. 
He  told  her  to  wait  a moment,  and  spat  on  his  hands,  after- 
wards wiping  them  with  a by  no  means  clean  coloured 
handkerchief  which  he  wore  round  his  neck.  Taking  off  this 
dirty  handkerchief,  he  spread  it  over  his  hand  and  then  proffered 
his  help,  which  was  accepted,  without  his  realizing  that  he  had 
made  matters  no  better  than  before.  He  had  good  intentions, 
however,  and  would  have  resented  a refusal  of  his  help,  for 
Indians  always  look  for  politeness  in  return. 

213 


MORALS 


The  moral  condition  of  the  Indians  in  many  phases  of  their 
life,  and  especially  in  the  relation  of  the  sexes,  cannot  be  in  any 
true  sense  compared  with  that  of  civilized  Christian  nations, 
owing  to  their  different  circumstances  and  environment.  But, 
judged  from  their  heathen  standpoint,  they  cannot  be  termed 
vicious,  but  perfectly  natural. 

To  take  marriage  as  the  leading  example,  the  Indian  man  or 
woman  is  free  to  make  his  or  her  own  choice  of  a partner.  It 
is  true  that  their  choice  is  influenced  by  their  parents  and 
friends.  The  capability  of  the  woman  in  weaving,  pottery- 
making,  and  general  usefulness  is  also  taken  into  account.  As 
native  law  requires  that  the  man  must  leave  his  own  people, 
and  join  those  of  his  wife,  he  is  influenced  by  the  conditions  of 
her  country,  such  as  its  fertility,  its  richness  in  game,  its  dryness 
and  altitude,  and  comparative  freedom  from  mosquitos,  and 
also  its  good  water  and  abundance  of  fish.  The  social  life  of 
her  village  is  inquired  into,  such  as  the  frequency  of  feasts,  and 
whether  the  disposition  of  her  clansmen  is  friendly  and  sociable. 
The  woman,  whose  main  object  in  life  is  to  feed  well,  and  to 
have  as  little  drudgery  as  possible,  seeks  a husband  of  a mild 
and  kind  disposition,  who  will,  as  far  as  possible,  be  subservient 
to  her  rule,  and  who  has  the  reputation  of  being  a good  hunter 
and  gardener.  If  she  belongs  to  a border-clan,  and  her  people 
are  frequently  at  war,  she  also  considers  the  question  of  her 
husband’s  physical  strength  and  capability  as  a warrior,  so  that 
she  may  feel  safe  under  his  protection. 

A wedding,  as  we  should  call  it,  does  not  take  place ; and 
there  is  only  a marriage  on  approval,  corresponding  to  our 
engagement,  although  the  couple  live  together.  No  marriage 
is  considered  binding  by  native  law  until  a child  is  born,  and  if 
this  does  not  take  place  within  a reasonable  time  they  are 
justified  in  separating,  if  they  so  wish.  But  when  once  a child 
is  born  to  them,  even  should  the  child  die  or  be  put  to  death, 
they  are  considered  to  be  bound  to  each  other  for  life. 

Indians  are  monogamists.  Polygamy  and  polyandry  do  exist, 
but  for  necessary  reasons  which  will  be  explained  later.  There 
is  no  such  thing  as  a spinster  known  amongst  them,  nor  have  they 

214 


Lengua  Women 

1 he  only  garment  worn  by  a woman  is  the  skin  skirt,  with  the  exception  of  a fur  mantle  in  the  cold  season.  Two  or  three  carefully 
prepared  hides,  generally  of  the  goat,  sheep,  or  smaller  deer,  are  sewn  together  to  form  the  skirt. 


MORALS 


even  a word  expressing  such  a condition.  Not  only  in  theory, 
but  also  in  actual  fact,  every  marriageable  woman  is  married. 
She  may  become  a widow  and  then  remain  single,  but  this  is 
rare,  except  in  the  case  of  old  widows.  But  to  be  single 
altogether  is  unknown  and  inconceivable.  The  reason  for  this 
is  very  clear.  Women  are  rather  fewer  in  number  than  men, 
owing  to  the  custom  of  infanticide ; therefore  a woman  has  no 
need  to  remain  unmarried  for  the  lack  of  a partner.  Their 
mode  of  life  and  state  of  society  are  such  that  every  marriageable 
girl  must  have  a recognized  protector. 

There  is  undoubtedly  considerable  laxity  of  morals  amongst 
them,  viewed  from  the  Christian  standpoint,  yet  when  unfaith- 
fulness occurs  on  the  part  of  the  husband  or  the  wife  it  is 
invariably  because  the  marriage  has  been  one  of  convenience  and 
not  of  love.  If  the  Indian  could  be  brought  to  marry  purely 
from  affection  (and  he  certainly  possesses  this),  unfaithfulness 
would  be  almost  unknown  among  them.  I think  I am  perfectly 
justified  in  saying  that,  in  the  few  cases  where  marriage  has  been 
the  result  of  affection,  the  couple  have  trusted  each  other,  and 
this  trust  has  rarely  been  misplaced.  One  reason  for  the  lack 
of  marriages  based  on  affection  is  that  in  the  primitive  state  of 
the  people  they  mix  in  a very  small  circle,  and  meet  with  no 
partner  with  whom  they  could  mate,  except  those  whom  they 
have  played  with  from  childhood.  Little  choice,  therefore,  is 
left  them,  and  there  is  not  that  novelty  of  a fresh  face  and 
character  which  tends  to  become  captivating,  and  eventually 
leads  to  love. 

Polygamy  is  not  the  natural  instinct  of  the  Indian.  It  is 
only  found  to  exist  among  tribes  where,  owing  to  devastating 
wars,  the  men  have  been  so  reduced  in  number  that  the  women 
largely  outnumber  them,  and  the  tribe  would  be  in  danger  of 
extinction  if  monogamy  were  insisted  upon.  This  prospect, 
coupled  with  the  fact  that  their  conditions  of  life  require  that 
every  woman  should  be  married,  forces  them  to  adopt  polygamy, 
but  it  gradually  ceases  as  the  balance  of  the  sexes  is  restored. 

For  an  opposite  reason,  although  to  a much  smaller  extent, 
polyandry  is  sometimes  met  with  on  the  frontiers.  The  tribes 

215 


MORALS 


practising  polygamy  lie  on  the  south-west  frontier,  and  are 
strong  and  powerful,  with  warlike  instincts.  They  are  strong 
enough  to  resist  invasion,  and  the  wars  are  carried  on  chiefly 
in  the  neutral  zone  between  the  hostile  nations.  The  males 
naturally  suffer  the  most,  whereas  on  the  north  frontier  the 
tribes  are  weaker  and  less  warlike,  and  are  opposed  by  superior 
forces,  which  invade  their  country  and  carry  off  their  women, 
who  are  sold  in  considerable  numbers  for  immoral  purposes  in 
the  foreign  settlements.  An  Indian  would  not  under  any 
circumstances  deal  in  this  wav  with  his  own  tribeswomen,  but 
stimulated  by  the  hatred  of  tribe  and  race,  they  go  so  far  as  to 
dispose  thus  of  their  captives  to  foreigners.  The  blame  lies  at 
the  door  of  the  foreign  race  which  encourages  such  a traffic. 
For  this  reason,  the  men  of  these  northern  tribes  far  outnumber 
the  women,  and  consequently  the  only  alternative  left  them  is 
for  several  men  to  have  a common  wife.  To  this  the  woman 
does  not  object,  because  she  is  freed  from  all  irksome  labour, 
and  is  well  cared  for  by  her  husbands. 

I know  of  only  one  instance  of  polyandry  that  ever  existed 
among  the  Lenguas,  and  that  was  in  the  case  of  a woman 
exceedingly  capable  and  intelligent,  but  of  an  exceptionally 
wayward  disposition.  She  had  two  husbands  living  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  Her  conduct  was  strongly  condemned, 
especially  by  the  women  of  her  tribe,  and  she  was  eventually 
forced  to  content  herself  with  the  senior  husband. 

There  is  much  more  that  could  be  written  on  this  subject, 
which  is  of  intense  interest  from  an  anthropological  or  scientific 
point  of  view,  and  which  lies  at  the  bottom  of  many  social  evils 
in  the  Chaco  and  in  our  own  country  too.  These  evils  cause  us 
great  difficulty  in  our  social  as  well  as  Christian  work  among 
this  people.  Some  of  these  characteristics,  however,  although 
a source  of  much  evil,  have  much  that  is  good  in  them,  and 
indicate  a very  high  degree  of  advancement.  Even  the  most 
scientific  thinkers  would  rejoice  if  Europeans  could  attain  to  it. 
Obviously,  from  their  very  nature,  I cannot  deal  with  them  in 
this  work. 


216 


CHAPTER  XXII 


SYSTEM  OF  DEALING  WITH  INDIANS 

The  Indian  is  essentially  a child,  only  he  is  a full-grown  one, 
and,  living  a free  and  unrestrained  life,  he  is  apt  to  prove  at 
times  a dangerous  child. 

His  view  of  life  ; his  religious  speculations ; his  humours ; 
his  seriousness  over  trifles  and  incapacity  to  weigh  matters  ; his 
love  of  stories ; his  desire  to  be  taken  notice  of  and  petted  ; his 
simple  pride  which  makes  him  resent  being  ignored  ; his  desire 
to  imitate  his  seniors  in  knowledge,  culture,  and  manners,  and 
his  keen  sense  of  justice  are  all  characteristics  which  he  possesses 
in  common  with  the  ordinary  child.  Firmness,  sympathy, 
patience,  justice,  and  kindness  are  therefore  essential  qualifi- 
cations in  anybody  who  would  dominate  the  Indian  for  his 
good. 

It  is  frequently  alleged  that  many  races  such  as  these  are  void 
of  a moral  or  religious  sense.  The  Tierra  del  Fuegian  natives 
have  been  classed  in  this  category.  Even  Dobrizhoffer  said  of 
the  Abiponi  Indians  : “ Reasoning  is  a process,  troublesome, 
and  almost  unknown  to  them ; it  is  therefore  no  wonder  that  the 
contemplation  of  terrestrial  or  celestial  objects  should  inspire 
them  with  no  idea  of  the  creative  Deity.'"’  But  the  Indian,  in 
reality,  does  reason,  does  wonder  about  the  mysteries  of  heaven 
and  earth,  the  present,  the  past,  and  the  future  ; as,  however,  his 
reasoning  faculties  have  not  been  developed,  he  thinks  and  draws 
conclusions  as  a child  does. 

When  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  we  had  to  deal  with  a people 
speaking  a strange  and  hitherto  unknown  language,  whose 
thoughts,  ideas,  and  expressions  were  utterly  different  from 

217 


SYSTEM  OF  DEALING  WITH  INDIANS 

those  of  any  known  people,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  task  of 
tutoring  them  was  attended  with  gigantic  difficulties. 

I found  them  a people  without  any  central  government,  with 
very  little  attempt  at  government  of  any  kind,  controlled  only 
by  a somewhat  lax  public  sentiment,  with  crude  religious  ideas 
and  customs,  which  in  the  course  of  numberless  generations  had 
lost  much  of  their  primary  significance. 

Their  industries  were  few  and  of  comparatively  small  impor- 
tance. They  had  little  or  no  idea  of  private  property.  They 
had  lost  all  cohesion  and  desire  to  improve  themselves,  being 
content  in  a great  measure  to  exist  only  for  the  present  moment. 
They  were  a slowly  dying  race  without  hope  in  this  life  or  in  the 
life  to  come.  The  various  tribes  were  at  enmity  with  one 
another,  and  waging  wars  of  extermination. 

Our  task  was  first  of  all  to  make  ourselves  acquainted  with 
the  language,  political  constitution  (such  as  it  was),  history, 
habits,  customs,  religious  beliefs,  and  the  possible  capacity  of  the 
people  ; to  arrest  the  decline  and  decay  of  the  race ; to  bind  the 
various  tribes  together  ; to  give  them  a system  of  government ; 
to  raise  them  to  the  level  of  property-holders ; to  induce  them 
to  adopt  an  industrious,  settled,  and  regular  life  ; to  instil  into 
them  a higher  moral  sense  ; to  awaken  a desire  for  culture  and 
progress  ; to  fit  them  to  receive  the  offer  of  the  Paraguayan 
Government  of  citizenship  in  that  Republic;  to  make  them 
useful  members  of  society,  a people  who  could  bear  their  part 
in  the  development  of  their  own  land ; and  to  qualify  them  in 
every  way  to  take  their  due  place  as  a unit  in  the  growing 
population  of  a great  continent. 

We  realized  that  the  only  way  in  which  we  could  succeed  in 
doing  so  was  by  implanting  in  them  a pure,  living  form  of 
Christianity,  which  would  become  the  basis  of  their  political, 
social,  and  moral  constitution.  Therefore  we  determined  at  the 
outset  to  lead,  as  far  as  our  frail  natures  would  allow,  a simple, 
pure,  and  practical  Christian  life  among  these  people  whom  we 
desired  to  convert,  realizing  from  past  experience  that  they 
would  watch  and  criticize  our  every  action  with  lynxlike  eyes. 
We  were  to  these  primitive  people— if  one  may  say  so — their 

218 


SYSTEM  OF  DEALING  WITH  INDIANS 


Bible,  their  rule  of  faith  ; and  if  through  any  inconsistency  on 
our  part  we  failed  to  give  them  a true  example,  we  knew  our  work 
must  prove  an  utter  failure. 

It  is  difficult  for  those  at  home  to  realize  the  intense  strain 
which  this  meant,  and  the  reader  who  would  do  us  justice  must 
consider  our  position  and  circumstances.  We  were  cut  off  for 
years  from  our  fellows,  with  a heathen  atmosphere  around  us, 
and  deprived  of  intercourse  with  higher  and  nobler  souls.  We 
were  young  men  with  little  experience  of  life,  who  had  to  fight 
for  the  mastery  over  ourselves,  without  the  many  aids  which 
those  in  the  home  country  possess.  Our  supply  of  literature 
was  exceedingly  limited,  and  our  opportunities  for  mental  im- 
provement still  more  restricted.  We  were  surrounded  by  strong 
temptations,  poorly  fed,  miserably  housed — often  for  months  not 
housed  at  all — debilitated  in  nerve  and  physique  by  the  climate, 
our  stamina  reduced  by  fever  and  hardship,  and  continually 
irritated  by  the  perpetual  insect  plagues.  We  were  subjected 
to  strain  through  anxiety  for  the  success  of  our  work,  and 
through  the  continual  restraint  which  we  required  to  exercise 
over  ourselves,  and  added  to  this  was  the  constant  possibility 
of  personal  danger. 

It  is  one  thing  to  be  brave,  courageous  and  dashing  in  the 
company  of  hundreds  of  our  fellows,  cheered  on  by  an  admiring- 
nation,  and  constantly  under  the  public  eye ; but  it  is  quite 
another  thing  when  one  is  alone  in  a strange  land,  among  a 
hostile  and  superstitious  people,  with  little  communication  even 
with  our  few  friends  at  home,  and  utterly  forgotten  and  ignored 
by  the  world  at  large. 

Just  as  children  rely  upon  the  man  who  is  strong,  resolute 
and  brave,  so  do  these  Indians.  Weakness  may  be  pitied  by 
them,  but  it  is  not  respected.  Physically  weak  men,  unless 
backed  by  the  two  qualities  of  firmness  and  courage,  are  apt  to 
be  trifled  with  by  them.  The  Indians  are  quick  to  test  and 
find  out  what  a new-comer  is  made  of,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
take  a firm  stand  with  them  from  the  beginning  in  order  to 
avoid  falling  into  the  traps  they  so  skilfully  lay. 

It  is  a difficult  matter  to  win  the  love  and  confidence  of  the 

219 


SYSTEM  OF  DEALING  WITH  INDIANS 


Indian,  but  since  these  were  absolutely  necessary  to  the  success 
of  our  work,  we  at  once  laid  ourselves  out  to  gain  them  by 
endeavouring  to  show  our  love  for  them  and  confidence  in  them. 

In  the  early  years  we  took  pains  to  manifest  our  good-will 
towards  them  in  every  way  possible,  and  were  cheered  by  finding 
it  returned.  Frequently,  for  instance,  when  travelling,  if  we 
perceived  an  old  woman  or  a frail  man  suffering  from  fatigue, 
we  would  dismount  from  our  horses  and  make  them  take  our 
places,  an  act  which  the  Indians  would  readily  appreciate. 
While  camping  in  the  forest  on  a stormy  night,  we  have  shared 
our  blankets  with  the  most  needy,  and  by  many  such  little  acts 
of  kindness,  sought  to  convince  them  of  our  brotherliness.  In 
numerous  cases  the  Indians  have  proved  that  they  were  quite  as 
willing  to  display  kindness  to  us,  as  I have  instanced  in  the 
previous  chapter. 

But  while  we  desired  to  evince  our  love  for  the  Indian  and 
treat  him  as  a brother,  we  recognized  the  necessity  of  not  being 
governed  by  mere  sentiment,  but  of  exercising  practical  love. 
“ Love  worketh  no  evil,”  and  if  we,  through  mistaken  benevolence, 
weakened  the  Indian’s  character,  we  should  be  doing  him  harm 
instead  of  good.  To  give  a lazy,  idle  man  food,  when  he  ought 
to  work,  is  not  a kindness,  but  a wrong.  “ If  a man  will  not 
work,  neither  shall  he  eat,”  and  therefore  we  always  sought  to 
blend  love  with  strictness  and  justice. 

On  one  occasion  I was  travelling  with  a party  of  Indians, 
some  of  the  younger  men,  including  myself,  being  mounted. 
On  coming  to  a difficult  swamp,  which  had  to  be  crossed,  I at 
once  dismounted,  and  perceiving  an  opportunity  of  teaching  a 
lesson,  I explained  that  I was  considerate  enough  to  let  some 
woman  with  young  children  ride  my  horse  while  1 walked.  The 
Indians  greatly  approved  of  this,  and,  accordingly,  a woman  with 
two  children  mounted  my  steed.  But  my  young  companions 
exhibited  no  inclination  to  follow  my  example.  On  perceiving 
this,  I insisted  upon  their  dismounting  and  giving  place  to  the 
weaker,  informing  them  that  as  they  were  the  relatives  and 
friends  of  these  women  and  children,  it  was  their  duty  rather 
than  mine  to  dismount,  and  that,  even  if  I had  not  done  so 

220 


SYSTEM  OF  DEALING  WITH  INDIANS 

myself,  I should  have  insisted  upon  their  doing  it.  They  obeyed, 
but  not  with  a very  good  grace;  nevertheless,  the  whole  party 
thoroughly  approved  of  the  step  I had  taken.  It  was  not  a course 
which  they  would  have  thought  of  taking  of  their  own  accord. 
To  be  kind  and  considerate  in  this  way  was  new  to  them,  but 
the  moral  was  not  lost  upon  them. 

On  another  occasion,  after  I had  lived  two  or  three  years 
amongst  them,  I happened  to  be  employing  a number  of  men 
from  a western  village,  and  had  agreed  to  supply  them  with 
food  in  return  for  their  work.  The  young  Chief  of  their  party, 
however,  a vain,  conceited,  and  idle  fellow,  declined  to  work. 
When  midday  came,  the  men  were  told  they  might  sit  round 
the  pot  and  eat,  and  the  young  Chief  presented  himself  with  the 
rest.  I had  frequently  impressed  upon  the  natives  the  necessity 
of  all  able-bodied  men  honestly  earning  their  living  in  some  way 
or  other,  and  had  told  them  that  wilful  loafers  had  no  claim  on 
the  charity  of  others.  I now  remonstrated  with  the  Chief  to 
this  effect,  but  he  insisted  upon  sharing  the  food.  To  have 
given  way  would  have  implied  to  the  Indians  one  of  two  things, 
either  that  I was  afraid  of  their  Chief,  or  else  that  I was  not 
very  anxious  about  insisting  upon  what  I had  so  often  taught 
them.  In  either  case  the  effect  upon  them  would  have  been  bad, 
and  therefore  to  ignore  the  incident  would  have  meant  weakness 
on  my  part.  So  I ordered  the  Chief  to  leave  the  pot,  and,  as  he 
failed  to  obey  me,  I forcibly  removed  him.  There  was  some 
opposition,  and  as  the  men  seemed  disinclined  to  eat  without 
him,  I upset  the  pot  and  its  contents  on  the  ground.  I antici- 
pated further  trouble,  but  in  the  afternoon  they  again  began 
work,  and  sat  quietly  down  to  their  evening  meal  when  it  was 
ready.  The  young  Chief,  however,  was  absent,  having  gone  off 
in  a huff. 

The  Indians  quite  acknowledged  that  the  arrangement  I had 
made  with  them,  on  the  basis  of  “ so  much  work  so  much  food,” 
was  just,  and  that  I was  warranted  in  refusing  their  Chief  the 
right  to  eat.  They  had  not  expected  me  to  take  such  a strong 
hand  in  the  matter,  but  I never  had  any  further  trouble  on  this 
score. 

221 


SYSTEM  OF  DEALING  WITH  INDIANS 

The  Indian  is  a great  admirer  of  courage,  and  is  courageous 
himself  in  certain  ways.  One  of  their  favourite  tests  was  to 
come  to  me  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  when  we  happened  to  be 
camped  near  some  great  forest.  While  sound  asleep  beneath  my 
mosquito-net,  they  would  roughly  awaken  me,  exclaiming  that 
a large  jaguar  was  close  at  hand,  and  that  I had  better  see  to 
my  safety.  They  behaved  as  naturally  as  they  could,  but  they 
rather  overacted,  and,  knowing  them  well  enough  to  detect  an 
absence  of  earnestness  in  their  tone,  I was  convinced  it  was  only 
a hoax,  and  so  bade  them  begone  and  leave  me  to  sleep.  After 
playing  this  and  similar  tricks  several  times  upon  me,  they 
eventually  concluded  that  I was  neither  of  a timid  disposition, 
nor  was  I to  be  easily  deceived. 

Again,  children  have  a strong  sense  of  justice;  and  the  Indian 
likewise  respects  justice,  even  when  he  is  the  loser.  Let  me 
illustrate  this  by  an  experience  in  which  I was  to  some  extent 
the  sufferer. 

There  were  rumours  current  in  the  village  in  which  I was  then 
located  that  we  were  in  imminent  danger  of  an  attack  from  the 
Northern  Kisapang  Tribe.  One  day  a Chief  came  to  me  in 
breathless  alarm  saying  that  he  had  just  found  a Kisapang  scout 
in  the  act  of  walking  off  with  my  horse,  leading  it  by  an  Indian 
belt,  which  he  had  tied  round  its  neck  ; but  that  he  had  rescued 
it  just  in  time,  and  had  brought  back  the  horse  with  the  belt 
still  round  its  neck.  There  were  signs,  he  said,  of  a party  of 
Kisapang  in  the  vicinity  of  the  village,  and  that  in  all  probability 
they  had  taken  some  of  the  other  horses.  The  women  and 
children  showed  great  alarm,  and,  together  with  some  of  the 
leading  Indians,  he  begged  me  to  give  them  powder  and  shot  for 
their  guns,  asserting  that,  if  the  Kisapang  once  knew  that  they 
were  well  armed,  they  would  be  afraid  to  attack  the  village. 

Knowing  how  terrible  would  be  the  consequences  if  an  attack 
actually  took  place,  I agreed  to  their  request,  but  on  condition 
that  they  should  not  go  farther  than  the  near  vicinity  of  the 
village,  and  on  no  account  provoke  an  encounter,  but  merely 
remain  on  the  defensive ; and,  further,  that  they  were  to  return 
to  me  all  the  powder  and  shot  not  used. 

222 


SYSTEM  OF  DEALING  WITH  INDIANS 

They  seemed  much  relieved.  But  I thought  it  strange  that, 
wandering  about  as  they  continually  were  in  search  of  game, 
they  had  not  before  detected  signs  of  the  Kisapang  in  the 
neighboui'hood,  and  that  visitors  who  had  recently  arrived  from 
the  north  had  brought  no  news  of  any  hostile  movement 
among  them. 

That  day  my  Indians  sent  out  a scouting-party,  and  a few 
shots  were  fired  by  way  of  warning  that  the  village  was  well 
armed.  The  next  day  they  again  went  out,  and  did  not  return 
till  night ; but  when  they  did  arrive  they  brought  in  three 
large  thlenach  (deer),  saying  they  had  seen  no  signs  of  the 
Kisapang. 

My  suspicions  were  aroused,  so  on  the  following  day  I recom- 
mended them  to  go  out  again,  as  probably  the  Kisapang  were 
still  in  the  neighbourhood  ; but  they  declared  that  they  were 
quite  satisfied  that  their  enemies  had  gone. 

Presently  I summoned  the  men  to  my  hut,  and  ordered  them 
to  hand  back  the  powder  and  shot  left  over.  They  readily  did 
so  ; but  I informed  them,  greatly  to  their  discomfiture,  that  the 
amount  was  short  of  what  it  should  be.  When  they  declared 
that  that  was  all  they  had  left,  I replied  that  I had  always 
understood  they  had  only  one  name  for  the  Kisapang,  but  I had 
since  discovered  they  had  another  name  for  them.  “Oh  no!” 
they  said  ; “there  is  only  one  name.”  “Not  at  all,”  I replied  ; 
“ you  also  call  them  thlenach .”  They  looked  surprised  ; but  I 
informed  them  that  I had  counted  the  shots  they  had  fired,  and 
that  I had  also  observed  the  deer  which  they  had  brought  in  ; 
therefore  I demanded  the  hides  of  the  deer  shot  in  compensation 
for  the  ammunition  that  was  short.  They  were  at  first  very 
angry  and  disappointed,  seeing  that  the  price  demanded  was 
far  in  excess  of  the  value  of  the  powder  and  shot,  but  recognizing 
that  their  stratagem  had  failed,  they  admitted  the  justice  of 
my  claim. 


223 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 

The  first  thing  that  the  white  man  requires  to  do  in  order  to 
become  a successful  mentor  to  an  alien  people  is  not,  as  many 
would  suppose,  to  study  the  language  and  begin  to  teach, 
but  to  get  rid  of  his  inborn  feeling  of  superiority  and  self- 
righteousness,  for  his  great  difficulty  in  dealing  with  such  a 
people  is  to  see  anything  from  their  point  of  view.  Unless  he 
can  clearly  perceive  their  position  and  enter  into  their  feelings  ; 
unless  he  can  realize  their  difficulties,  and  appreciate  the  efforts 
that  they  make  to  combat  them ; unless,  again,  he  can  see,  not 
only  the  weak,  but  also  the  good  points  in  their  character, 
there  can  be  no  sympathy  between  him  and  them.  And  without 
a genuine  feeling  of  sympathy  he  will  never  be  successful  in 
imparting  higher  ideals  to  others. 

Many,  besides  missionaries,  have  felt  keenly  the  attitude 
frequently  taken  by  the  new-comer,  who  looks  around  him  with 
a conscious  air  of  superiority  and  of  power,  and  fancies  he  sees 
at  a glance  the  weak  points  and  secrets  of  failure.  How  often 
we  find  some  traveller  devoting  a few  months  to  a flying  visit 
to  some  centres  of  a great  and  populous  country,  and  then 
writing  and  lecturing  upon  it  with  the  greatest  possible 
assurance ; and,  strange  to  say,  people  at  home  pay  an  absurd 
amount  of  attention  to  his  observations.  He  himself  is  possibly 
quite  sincere,  and,  in  his  ignorance,  implicitly  believes  that  he 
has  grasped  all  the  salient  points. 

In  the  heathen  world  we  find  much  that  is  good,  much  that 
is  essentially  true,  much  that  is  worth  possessing  which  we 
ourselves  do  not  possess ; and  the  wise  teacher,  with  a proper 

224 


TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


humility  of  mind,  accepts,  appreciates,  and  uses  what  is  good, 
however  little  it  may  be ; and  with  a like  humility  he  is  ready 
to  admit  that  we  ourselves  are  by  no  means  perfect,  and  have 
little  to  boast  of  in  spite  of  our  advantages  over  the  heathen. 

On  more  than  one  occasion  I have  been  reminded  of  the 
example  of  that  great  missionary  St.  Paul,  when  he  said,  “ Sirs, 
why  do  ye  these  things  ? We  also  are  men  of  like  passions 
with  you.”  On  New  Year’s  Day,  I894<,  for  example,  seeing 
a favourable  opportunity  to  have  a serious  and  pertinent  talk 
with  Keamapsithyo  (Philip),  the  first  Indian  who  had  shown 
any  really  marked  interest  in  Christianity,  I walked  out  with 
him  some  distance  from  the  village,  and  sat  down  on  the  bank 
of  a stream. 

After  a long  conversation,  I told  him  that,  although  his 
knowledge  was  exceedingly  rudimentary,  chiefly  owing  to  my 
inadequate  command  of  his  language,  and  consequent  inability 
to  put  the  truths  of  the  Gospel  clearly  before  him,  yet  he  had 
been  able  to  comprehend  sufficiently  to  warrant  him  in  de- 
ciding there  and  then  to  abandon  heathenism  once  and  for  all, 
and  follow  Christ  as  his  Chief.  He  replied  that  it  was  as  I 
had  said,  only  that  I had  not  seemed  to  understand  how  sinful 
his  past  life  had  been ; he  knew  that,  to  follow  Christ,  he 
would  have  to  give  up  that  life  of  sin,  but,  as  it  had  such 
a hold  upon  him,  he  felt  that  he  could  not ; furthermore, 
his  sins  had  been  so  many  that  he  felt  sure  the  Christ  about 
whom  he  had  been  taught  could  not  possibly  go  so  far  as  to 
forgive  him.  He  added  that,  of  course,  in  my  case  it  was 
different,  because  I was  a good  man,  as  all  the  Indians  knew, 
and  doubtless  Christ  had  been  quite  pleased  to  receive  me, 
seeing  that  I had  never  committed  such  and  such  sins.  In  his 
own  case,  however,  it  must  be  otherwise. 

I went  over  with  him  in  detail  the  particular  sins  which 
he  had  instanced,  and  assured  him  that  many  of  them  I had 
myself  committed  innumerable  times  ; that  others,  although  not 
committed  in  act,  I had  committed  in  intention ; and  that  he 
knew,  according  to  the  theories  of  his  own  people,  as  well  as 
from  the  teaching  of  Christ  Himself,  that  the  sin  of  the  will  was 

225 


p 


TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


as  much  a sin  as  the  deed  itself.  I tried  to  convince  him  that 
I was  really  in  no  way  a better  man  than  himself,  in  spite  of  his 
opinion  of  me  and  that  of  his  people,  who  had  only  judged  me 
superficially,  yet  Christ  had  accepted  me,  and  therefore  would 
accept  him.  I showed  him  that  I still  had  the  same  tempta- 
tions as  he  had,  only  the  difference  was  that  my  will  was  to  do 
good  and  abstain  from  evil ; that  this  was  not  a natural,  but  a 
changed  will,  given  me  by  God  ; and  although  I certainly  did 
things  of  which  I did  not  approve,  yet  it  grieved  me  when  I 
did,  and  that  I was  continually  striving  to  overcome  these 
failings.  I then  expounded  the  doctrine  that,  in  such  a case, 
will-power  would  be  given  to  overcome  evil  in  proportion  as  the 
desire  to  overcome  was  strong.  I pointed  out  that,  by  his  own 
confession,  he  desired  to  lead  a good  life,  and  that,  as  I had 
already  made  it  clear,  his  past  guilt  could  be  atoned  for. 
Although  he  would  continue  to  stumble  for  long  after  taking 
this  step,  I explained  how  he  would  be  given  strength  to  subdue 
his  natural  weakness ; how,  as  his  knowledge  increased,  and  his 
experience  ripened,  and  his  desire  tended  unswervingly  in  the 
right  direction,  so  he  would  in  time  come  to  realize  the 
happiness  of  doing  right,  and  discover  that  strength  to  do  it 
would  be  imparted  to  him.  After  this,  without  giving  any 
decision  one  way  or  another,  he  broke  off  the  conversation  and 
left  me. 

It  was  not  until  four  years  and  a half  afterwards  that  I learnt 
the  immediate  result  of  our  talk.  He  was  preaching  to  his 
countrymen,  and  in  the  course  of  his  address  stated  distinctly 
and  unhesitatingly  that  it  was  on  that  day  that  he  definitely 
resolved  sincerely  to  endeavour  to  carry  out  what  I had  advised. 
He  remarked  that  it  was  only  the  perception  that  suddenly 
dawned  on  him  of  the  similarity  of  my  own  condition  with  his 
that  encouraged  him  to  make  the  effort. 

This  was  Christian  sympathy,  and  through  it  the  first  convert, 
Philip,  was  won  for  Christ. 

It  is  a great  mistake  to  think  that  all  heathen  peoples  are 
without  any  moral  code,  and  void  of  any  striving  after  higher 
things.  As  St.  Paul  says  : “ For  when  the  Gentiles,  which  have 

22G 


TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


not  the  law,  do  by  nature  the  things  contained  in  the  law,  they 
are  a law  unto  themselves,  their  conscience  also  bearing  witness, 
and  their  thoughts  the  meanwhile  accusing  or  else  excusing  one 
another.”  The  Indians  of  the  Chaco  distinctly  possess  a moral 
code  of  laws.  I have  never  yet,  during  my  twenty  years  of 
sojourn  among  them,  met  with  any  Indian  who  regarded  theft, 
murder,  adultery,  false-witness,  and  covetousness  as  anything 
but  sin ; and,  furthermore,  they  not  only  hold  the  act  as  sin, 
but  the  intention  or  desire  to  commit  the  act  also  as  sin. 

There  is  no  subject  which  interests  the  Indian  so  much  as 
that  concerning  the  spiritual  world,  and  the  very  lowest  of 
the  heathen  are  intensely  interested  in  any  questions  connected 
with  the  origin  of  the  universe,  or  with  man  and  his  probable 
destiny.  They  have  much  in  their  religious  belief  upon  which 
we  can  build  in  inculcating  Christianity,  and  it  is  necessary  that 
the  Christian  teacher  should  thoroughly  understand  the  religious 
theories  of  the  people  to  whom  he  preaches.  He  is  wise  who, 
in  bringing  to  them  the  true  light  of  the  Gospel,  appeals  to  their 
own  groping  in  the  darkness  after  something  they  cannot  grasp. 
St.  Paul,  on  Mars  Hill,  referred  to  the  altar  dedicated  to  the 
unknown  God.  The  Athenians  realized  that  there  was  some- 
thing lacking  which  they  did  not  know,  so  Paul  at  once  took 
advantage  of  this  in  introducing  his  subject,  for  he  said  : “ Him 
declare  I unto  you.”  We  had  to  begin  by  declaring  the  existence 
of  the  Creator  ; then,  we  went  on  to  utilize  the  Indian  theory 
already  referred  to,  that  all  things  were  created  by  some  great 
power  symbolized  by  a beetle.  We  explained  that  orginallyman 
knew  the  truth  concerning  this  Creator,  but  that,  from  certain 
causes  which  we  dwelt  upon,  he  had  either  forgotten  or  had 
acquired  erroneous  ideas  about  Him.  We  made  it  clear  that 
all  mankind  would  have  been  sunk  in  error  to  the  present  day 
had  it  not  been  that  the  Creator,  in  His  kindness,  had  revealed 
the  truth  afresh,  and  that  we  had  obtained  this  revelation  from 
an  ancient  people  to  whom  it  had  been  given. 

Their  theory  that  a race  of  powerful  beings  had  preceded 
man  tallied,  we  said,  in  the  main  with  our  own,  and  we  accepted 
their  belief  in  powerful  and  numerous  spiritual  hosts,  with  this 
• 227 


TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


difference  : that  whereas  they  seemingly  believed  that  such  were 
only  evil,  we,  on  the  contrary,  through  revelation,  knew  that  there 
were  both  good  and  evil  spirits,  and  that,  though  according  to 
their  tenets  the  Creating  Spirit  had  ceased  to  exercise  any 
governance  over  that  which  He  created,  yet  we  knew  that  He 
did  govern  in  the  heavens  above  and  in  the  earth  beneath. 
We  explained  how  His  governance  was  beneficial  ; but  His  laws 
were  so  modelled  that  evil  naturally  brought  its  own  punish- 
ment, and  we  brought  many  illustrations  from  their  own  life 
and  surroundings  to  bear  upon  these  subjects.  A man,  for 
example,  planted  a small  seed,  and  in  due  time  that  seed,  with- 
out any  intervention  on  his  part,  became  in  a way  which  he 
could  not  explain  a large  edible  fruit.  Now,  whether  the 
Creator,  by  a special  act,  either  by  Himself  or  through  His 
agents,  produced  this  result,  or  whether  in  the  beginning  He 
implanted  in  the  seed  the  capacity  to  develop  in  the  soil  that 
received  it,  under  certain  given  conditions,  into  the  fruit,  the 
cause  was  the  same.  And  as  that  fruit  was  of  service  to  both 
man  and  beast,  it  indicated  kindness  and  thoughtfulness  on  the 
part  of  the  original  Creator. 

Mosquitos  were  also,  according  to  their  own  theories  and 
also  ours,  the  work  of  the  same  Creator,  though  they  held 
the  mosquito  to  be  altogether  evil.  But  the  problem  whether 
this  insect  was  really  altogether  a pest,  or  played  some  neces- 
sary part  in  Nature,  was  due  to  a want  of  knowledge  on  their 
part.  They  could  not  say  that  the  mosquito  was  not  useful ; 
they  could  say  that,  as  far  as  they  were  concerned  and  aware, 
the  mosquito  was  injurious.  But  they  all  knew  that  if  they 
cleared  a certain  space  around  their  villages,  and  selected  a site 
far  enough  removed  from  swamp  and  forest,  the  mosquitos 
tended  to  disappear  in  that  part.  One  thing  they  did  not  know 
was  that  the  Creator  intended  man  to  be  master  to  a great 
extent  of  his  circumstances.  The  Creator  had  given  him  intelli- 
gence and  power  to  combat  difficulties,  and  by  taking  certain 
measures  they  could  to  a great  extent  minimize  the  evil  which 
the  mosquito  wrought. 

In  numerous  other  ways  we  sought  to  train  the  Indian  mind 

228 


TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


to  connect  cause  and  effect,  and  to  induce  him  to  use  to  the 
utmost  those  means  which  the  Almighty  had  put  within  his 
power  of  elevating  himself  and  improving  his  position.  From 
the  very  beginning  we  were  quick  to  realize  that  we  were  deal- 
ing with  a people  in  its  infancy.  Whether  they  had  been  at 
some  remote  time  an  organized  and  civilized  nation  or  not 
mattered  little.  The  fact  remained  that  when  we  found  them 
they  were  in  the  condition  of  primitive  savages. 

There  were  two  courses  open  to  us.  One  was  to  look  upon 
them  as  a moribund  race,  and  to  endeavour  to  bring  them 
speedily  to  a knowledge  of  the  Gospel  before  they  should  become 
extinct.  A human  soul,  whether  of  the  higher  races  or  of  the 
savage,  is  of  such  incalculable  value  that  no  expense  or  effort 
can  be  too  great  to  spend  on  its  redemption.  But  while  fully 
comprehending  this,  we  also  grasped  the  fact  that  there  were 
hundreds  of  millions  in  this  world  who  were  continually  being 
replenished  by  new  generations,  and  requiring  direction  and 
help  towards  the  higher  life  as  much  as  this  scattered  people  in 
the  Chaco.  It  was  therefore  a question  of  calculating  how  best 
we  could  utilize  the  limited  means  at  our  disposal  in  the  uplift- 
ing of  the  human  race.  After  careful  consideration,  we  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  this  people  need  not  inevitably  become 
extinct,  and  that,  furthermore,  there  was  every  possibility  of 
their  increasing,  developing,  and  eventually  occupying  a useful 
position  in  the  world. 

Having  settled  this  in  our  own  minds,  the  second  question 
was  how  best  we  could  accomplish  our  object.  All  who  under- 
stand anything  about  the  financial  condition  of  Missions  know 
well  that  the  means  at  our  disposal  are  so  limited  that  every 
farthing  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  We  felt,  therefore,  that 
we  could  not  honestly  contemplate  devoting  the  time  of  a 
number  of  men,  and  even  the  continued  limited  amount  of 
money  necessary  for  such  a work,  to  ministration  among  such  a 
small  section  of  the  heathen  world.  Our  policy  was,  therefore, 
from  the  first  to  aim  at  making  this  Mission  as  soon  as  possible 
self-supporting  and  self-expanding.  We  were  entirely  opposed 
to  any  attempt  at  encouraging  these  Chaco  heathen  to  accept 

229 


TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


Christianity  through  the  hope  of  material  gain.  We  impressed 
upon  them  that  if  they  followed  our  teaching  it  would  ultimately 
lead  to  their  material  improvement,  but  we  unhesitatingly  gave 
them  to  understand  that  such  improvement  could  only  be 
attained  by  their  own  efforts.  We  were  willing  to  instruct 
them  so  far  as  was  necessary,  and  to  lead  and  direct  them  until 
such  time  as  they  should  be  able  to  fend  for  themselves,  but  we 
made  it  clear  that  their  destiny  depended  upon  themselves.  We 
therefore  determined  to  give  away  nothing,  and  to  insist  upon 
their  contributing  towards  the  expenses  of  the  work  instead  of 
depending  on  assistance  from  us. 

This  great  Chaco  region  would  require  a small  army  of  Euro- 
peans to  evangelize,  and  the  pressing  needs  elsewhere  are  so 
great  that  such  an  attempt  would  be  unwarranted.  We  there- 
fore urged  upon  our  first  converts  the  necessity  of  themselves 
bearing  the  responsibility  of  evangelizing  their  countrymen. 

Of  course,  there  are  many  who  object  to  such  a people  having 
the  reins  of  government  put  into  their  hands  until  they  are 
perfectly  fitted  to  exercise  it.  We  agree  that  it  is  necessary  for 
many  years  to  come  to  keep  a controlling  hand  upon  this  young 
nation  and  Church,  but  we  contend  that  the  only  way  in  which 
they  will  learn  to  act  for  themselves  is  by  experience.  Doubt- 
less there  will  be  many  failures  and  disappointments,  but  only 
by  falls  and  bruises  can  the  battle  of  life  be  won.  The  Jesuit 
Fathers  built  up  a marvellous  work  amongst  the  Indians  of 
Paraguay,  but  when  they  were  expelled  by  the  Government  the 
fabric  soon  fell  to  pieces.  The  reason,  I believe,  was  this : The 
priests  ruled  and  the  people  had  to  obey ; they  were  not  taught 
to  think  and  act  for  themselves. 

The  socialistic  system  of  ancient  Peru  was  the  cause  of  its 
downfall ; the  people  had  lost  independence,  self-reliance,  and 
initiative.  We  have  worked,  and  are  still  working,  towards 
making  this  Chaco  people  a thinking,  independent,  and  self- 
reliant  Church  and  nation.  Doubtless  it  would  be  easier  for  us 
to  keep  them  in  a state  of  childhood,  implicitly  obeying  and 
never  questioning  the  rule  of  their  foster-fathers ; and  the  people, 
being  naturally  weak  in  character,  could  be  easily  induced  to 

230 


TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


remain  so.  But  we  are  not  there  for  our  own  comfort  and 
glorification  ; it  is  the  present  and  ultimate  benefit  of  the  people 
that  we  seek,  and  this  is  only  to  be  accomplished  by  making 
them  learn  to  depend  upon  their  own  efforts  instead  of  by 
perpetually  keeping  them  in  leading-strings. 


LENGUA  FISH-TRAP. 


231 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


INFANTICIDE  AND  OTHER  EVILS 

It  is  only  natural  to  expect  that  the  beliefs  of  the  Lengua 
Indians,  erroneous  as  they  are,  should  produce  in  this  primitive 
people  actions  corresponding  to  them.  Opinions  sincerely  held 
make  the  man,  and  as  our  object  was  to  make  them  good  men, 
it  is  evident  that  we  first  had  to  study  their  moral  standpoint. 
We  could  only  do  this  by  entering  fully  into  their  ordinary  life, 
and  acquiring  by  tactful  sympathy  a knowledge  of  their 
thoughts,  feelings,  and  beliefs,  which  such  a people  do  not 
readily  divulge  to  the  casual  stranger.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  this  preliminary  work  occupied  us  close  upon 
seven  years. 

The  chief  events  dealt  with  in  this  chapter  took  place  after 
we  had  gained  this  experience,  and  after  we  had  begun  to  gain 
a certain  measure  of  moral  influence  over  the  people.  The 
vices  and  crimes  practised  by  them  in  their  heathen  state  could 
doubtless  have  been  overcome  had  we  been  in  a position  to 
plant  a strong  governing  power  among  them.  An  army  can 
quell  a revolution,  but  cannot  change  the  feeling  of  discontent 
into  one  of  loyal  obedience.  In  every  case  where  the  evil 
tendencies  of  man  are  curbed  by  physical  force  alone,  reaction 
immediately  sets  in  the  moment  that  controlling  force  is 
removed.  It  is  a truism  that  education,  moral  training,  and 
spiritual  power  can  alone  mould  the  character  of  man  satis- 
factorily and  permanently. 

I must  put  it  on  record  that  our  early  successes  with  this 
people,  and  the  diminution  of  the  dangers  which  we  had  to 
encounter,  were,  humanly  speaking,  due  to  the  policy  which  we 

232 


INFANTICIDE 


pursued.  Any  explorer  or  trader  could  have  succeeded  as  well 
had  he  adopted  similar  methods  and  shown  courage  and  tact. 
But  it  was  moral  power  that  we  aimed  to  win,  in  order  to 
benefit  the  people,  and  not  simply  to  make  our  own  course 
easy.  Moral  influence  grows  slowly,  as  it  can  only  advance  in 
proportion  as  those  affected  respond  to  it. 

As  is  usually  the  case,  moral  awakening  tends  to  produce 
a feeling  of  timidity  and  shame.  Those  influenced  by  it  do  not 
at  once  give  way  to  the  new  ideas ; their  old  life  retains  a great 
attraction,  and  a conflict  ensues  between  their  higher  and  lower 
natures.  Consciousness  of  shame  induces  them  to  hide,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  evil-doing  which  they  are  inclined  to  overcome, 
but  to  which  they  feel  they  must  succumb.  We  were  not 
surprised,  therefore,  to  discover  continual  attempts  to  deceive 
us,  and  we  still  have  to  encounter  such  difficulties  even  among 
those  who  show  a desire  to  accept  Christianity. 

The  most  prominent  evil  which  we  found  prevalent  among 
the  Lenguas  was  that  of  a carefully-planned  system  of  racial 
suicide,  by  the  practice  of  infanticide  by  abortion,  and  other 
methods,  which,  although  they  show  that  the  Indian  has  con- 
siderable knowledge,  are  of  such  a nature  that  I dare  not  make 
them  public.  Against  infanticide  proper  we  took  a firm  stand, 
and  the  humane  feelings  and  natural  instincts  of  the  people 
caused  them  to  respond  readily  to  our  appeals.  They  are 
urged  to  this  crime  by  superstitious  fears,  the  custom  of  cen- 
turies, and,  paradoxical  as  it  may  appear,  by  feelings  of 
humanity.  There  is  certainly  from  their  point  of  view,  when  we 
remember  that  they  are  heathen,  a certain  justification  under- 
lying this  crime,  on  account  of  their  difficult  life  and  their 
inability  to  supply  sufficient  and  suitable  nourishment  for  a 
number  of  young  children. 

Their  superstitious  beliefs  impel  them  to  kill  all  children 
whose  circumstances  of  birth,  according  to  their  religious  code, 
entail  the  forfeiture  of  their  young  lives.  We  have  mentioned 
before  that  twins  are  never  allowed  to  live,  as  the  theory  is  held 
that  they  can  never  be  healthy  and  strong.  The  first  child,  if  a 
female,  is  invariably  put  to  death,  probably  because  they  con- 

233 


INFANTICIDE 


sider  that  she  will  bring  ill-luck.  They  object  to  a child  being 
of  a dark  skin  at  the  time  of  its  birth,  and  also  consider  certain 
unpropitious  dreams  as  justifying  the  destruction  of  the  infant. 
The  Indian  mother  is  fond  of  her  children,  and  when  she 
consents  to  the  murder  of  her  infant  it  is  not  infrequently  an 
agonizing  pang  to  her.  But  she  acquiesces  because  she  realizes 
the  difficulty  of  maintaining  it,  and  prefers  to  suffer  the  lesser 
pain  of  losing  it  at  birth  than  to  watch  its  sufferings  as  it 
lingers  on  for  perhaps  a year  or  two,  and  then  dies  after  she  has 
become  warmly  attached  to  it.  In  the  event  of  her  being 
deserted  by  her  husband,  her  relatives,  knowing  what  the  weight 
of  her  burden  would  be,  with  no  one  to  maintain  her,  bring 
pressure  to  bear  on  her  to  consent  to  the  destruction  of  the 
child. 

While  none  feel  more  keenly  than  we  do  the  wickedness  of 
this  crime,  yet,  in  justice  to  the  Indian,  and  considering  his 
position  and  condition  of  life,  we  must  admit  that  there  are 
extenuating  circumstances. 

At  the  present  moment  I have  in  my  mind  an  Indian 
Christian  family  of  six  children,  the  eldest  being  about  ten 
years  of  age.  How  could  this  family  possibly  exist  if  they  had 
to  lead  a nomadic  and  heathen  life  in  such  a country  as  the 
Chaco  ? The  Christian  population  is  rapidly  increasing,  and 
why  ? Because  we  have  not  only  led  them  on  to  higher  ideals, 
but  have  enabled  them  to  lead  a settled  and  regular  life ; the 
maintenance  of  a large  family  under  these  changed  conditions 
becomes  practicable,  apart  from  being  a Christian  duty. 

The  first  real  struggle  which  we  had  against  infanticide 
occurred  in  the  year  1895.  We  had  determined  to  remove  our 
station  from  Thlagwakhe  to  Waikthlatingmangyalwa,  but,  before 
we  finally  made  this  move,  we  built  a few  rough  huts  on  the 
new  site.  Some  few  months  before  our  contemplated  removal  a 
young  Indian  had  sought  to  marry  one  of  our  village  girls. 
The  parents  and  near  relatives  strongly  opposed  this  union,  but 
did  not  succeed  in  preventing  the  marriage.  She  was  expecting 
the  birth  of  a child,  and,  as  we  feared  the  outcome,  we  extorted 
a promise  from  the  girl’s  father  that  its  life  would  be  spared. 

234 


INFANTICIDE 


Shortly  after  this  the  villagers  made  matters  so  uncomfort- 
able for  the  husband  that  he  left  the  station  and  went  off  to 
the  West.  The  native  law  is  that,  if  a woman  is  deserted  by 
her  husband,  the  child  is  killed  as  soon  as  it  is  born.  We 
heard  many  reports  in  the  village  that  the  man  had  deserted 
the  girl  of  his  own  accord,  and  on  the  strength  of  these  rumours 
we  thought  it  advisable  to  call  the  chief  people  together  to 
warn  them  that  we  should  be  very  angry  if  the  child  was 
destroyed.  They  assured  us  that  its  life  would  be  spared,  and 
we  foolishly  trusted  them. 

On  the  evening  of  the  first  day  that  we  occupied  the  new  site 
the  child  was  born,  but  as  no  immediate  steps  were  taken  by 
the  people  to  kill  it,  we  believed  that  they  intended  to  adhere 
to  their  promise,  so  we  retired  to  rest  as  usual. 

Early  next  morning,  as  I was  boiling  my  coffee,  a little  boy 
about  six  years  of  age  came  to  warm  himself  at  my  fire.  With 
childish  simplicity  he  asked  me  if  I had  heard  the  news.  I 
asked  him,  “ What  news  ?”  He  replied  by  saying  that  when 
the  people  were  assured  that  we  were  asleep,  they  persuaded  a 
visiting  witch-doctor  from  the  West  to  kill  the  child,  shortly 
after  midnight,  by  knocking  it  on  the  back  of  the  neck  with  his 
club,  and  that  he  had  received  a sheep  and  a string  of  beads  for 
his  services.  The  child  went  on  to  say  that  before  the  morning 
star  arose,  the  grandfather  of  the  child  had  taken  the  body 
away  and  had  buried  it  beneath  a bottle-trunk  tree  in  the 
vicinity.  The  little  fellow  evidently  noticed  a change  in  my 
countenance,  for  he  seemed  to  realize  quickly  that  he  ought  not 
to  have  spoken. 

Apparently  the  people  had  not  been  aware  that  the  child  had 
seen  or  heard  anything,  or  they  would  certainly  have  prevented 
him  speaking  to  me ; and  as  they  are  very  cautious  in  keeping  a 
secret,  and  in  endeavouring  to  avoid  trouble,  no  one  would  ever 
be  likely  to  hear  the  subject  spoken  of  again.  It  is  quite  clear 
that  he  never  said  anything  about  his  conversation  with  me,  for 
to  the  present  day  the  Indians  have  no  idea  how  the  crime  was 
discovered. 

Shortly  after  breakfast  we  made  inquiries  about  the  baby, 

235 


INFANTICIDE 


and  were  calmly  informed  that  it  had  died  naturally,  and  had 
been  buried.  We  accused  them  of  having  killed  it,  and  raised 
as  big  a commotion  about  the  matter  as  possible.  We  were 
not  in  a position  to  punish  those  who  were  implicated,  but  our 
object  was  to  impress  upon  all  the  gravity  of  the  crime,  and  our 
strong  disapproval  of  it.  We  therefore  agreed  among  ourselves 
to  boycot  the  grandfather  in  particular,  and  decided  that  we 
would  not  employ  him  nor  hold  friendly  intercourse  with  him 
for  several  months,  in  order  to  bring  home  to  him  our  repug- 
nance at  the  crime. 

The  witch-doctor  had  left  early  that  morning,  and  the  others, 
evidently  feeling  ashamed  of  the  part  they  had  played,  kept 
very  much  to  themselves.  When  we  questioned  the  girl,  she 
cried  bitterly,  and  said  that  she  had  not  desired  the  murder. 
Later  in  the  day  I met  the  grandfather,  and  on  approaching  me 
he  offered  to  shake  hands  (a  custom  they  had  acquired  from  us), 
but  I looked  at  his  hand,  and  shrank  back,  saying  it  was  red. 
He  looked  at  it  himself  in  surprise,  and  then,  in  a confused  way, 
blurted  out  that  he  was  innocent,  saying  that  it  was  “ Blue- 
blanket,”  the  witch-doctor,  who  had  done  the  deed.  Greatly  to 
his  discomfiture,  I reminded  him  that  he  had  paid  “ Blue- 
blanket  ” to  do  it,  and  named  the  exact  payment  made,  It  was 
easily  to  be  seen  from  his  face  that  my  statement  was  correct. 

They  evidently  thought  that  by  employing  an  outsider  they 
would  to  a great  extent  avoid  our  anger,  as  they  could,  by 
shifting  the  blame  on  him,  shield  themselves ; so  they  were 
very  disappointed  when  they  found  that  their  scheme  was 
detected  and  had  failed.  We  gave  the  grandfather  little  peace  for 
the  next  few  months.  Sometimes  I would  meet  him,  and  would 
casually  remark,  “Saptaha  narnuk  ?”  (What  says  the  bottle- 
trunk  tree  ?),  or  would  pick  up  a club  in  his  presence,  and,  look- 
ing at  it  intently  for  a minute  or  two,  would  drop  it  suddenly, 
as  in  disgust.  These  little  reminders  had  the  desired  effect, 
and  he  learned  to  know  the  haunting  power  of  sin,  and  that  the 
way  of  transgressors  is  far  from  pleasant. 

Some  years  afterwards,  Keamapsithyo,  our  leading  Indian, 
addressing  the  people,  in  our  presence,  about  the  final 

236 


was 


INFANTICIDE 


judgment,  and  in  referring  to  this  and  other  cases  of  infanticide, 
he  pictured  in  his  simple  Indian  fashion  the  confusion  to  which 
such  sinners  would  be  brought  when  they  faced  the  great  Judge. 
He  imagined  Christ  upon  the  Throne,  and  the  Indians  standing 
before  Him.  Presently  a man  was  called  up,  whom  he  men- 
tioned by  name,  and  the  first  question  asked  was,  “ How  many 
children  have  you  ?”  The  answer  was,  “ Two.”  “ Have  you 
had  any  more  ?”  asked  Christ.  “ Yes,  three  more,”  he  replied. 
“ What  happened  to  them  ?”  said  Christ.  “ They  died,”  was 
the  reply.  “ Have  you  killed  any  ?”  “ No,”  the  man  replied. 

Then  there  was  a pause,  and  presently  an  angel  came  forward, 
leading  three  children  with  their  necks  broken  and  their  heads 
hanging.  Immediately  the  children  ran  to  the  man,  and,  clasp- 
ing him  round  the  knees,  they  cried  out,  “ Tata ! Tata !” 
(Father  ! Father  !)  The  Judge  looked  sternly  at  the  man  who 
stood  thus  convicted,  and  the  latter,  full  of  confusion,  hung  his 
head  before  the  Throne,  condemned. 

Keamapsithyo’s  address,  although  we  cannot  but  take  excep- 
tion to  some  parts  of  it,  was  eminently  suited  to  bring  vividly 
before  his  people  the  enormity  of  their  sin. 

This  case  of  infanticide,  although  we  failed  to  prevent  it, 
stirred  us  to  make  more  earnest  efforts  to  bring  about  the 
abolition  of  similar  outrages.  We  spoke  strongly  and  frequently, 
not  only  against  infanticide  proper,  but  also  against  its  allied 
evils.  As  time  went  on,  the  effect  of  our  teaching  began  to 
show  marked  results,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  wizards 
strongly  opposed  our  efforts  to  alter  customs  which  they  had 
observed  for  ages.  Only  by  moral  influence  could  we  possibly 
have  succeeded,  because  we  realized  that  fear  of  detection  and 
its  consequences  alone  would  never  bring  the  people  to  a higher 
view  of  life.  We  wanted  to  convince  them  that  what  we  taught 
was  right,  just,  and  profitable.  The  old  adage,  “ A man 
convinced  against  his  will  is  of  the  same  opinion  still,”  taught 
us  that  unless  they  willed  of  their  own  accord  to  alter  their 
former  evil  life  no  other  consideration  whatever  would  compel 
them  to  do  so. 

For  a long  time  we  were  occupied  in  founding  the  new  village 

237 


GROWING  INFLUENCE 


at  Waikthlatingmangyalwa.  All  previous  attempts  to  establish 
a permanent  settlement  had  failed,  but  now  the  Indians  showed 
a decided  inclination  to  take  to  a settled  life.  Regular  hours  of 
work  were  instituted,  and  a few  simple  rules  introduced,  in  order 
to  maintain  system  and  order  in  this  new  community.  A bell 
rang  at  fixed  hours,  summoning  the  people  to  work,  the 
children  to  school,  and  to  the  informal  services  which  we 
presently  began  to  hold ; but  we  interfered  as  little  as  possible 
with  the  ordinary  Indian  life,  knowing  that  changes  are  better 
wrought  slowly  than  suddenly.  We  also  had  to  remember  that 
we  were  dealing  with  a primitive  and  roving  race,  to  whom  all 
civilized  restrictions  were  irksome. 

Their  native  feasts  we  restricted  to  three  days,  and  we  made 
a compact  with  the  people  that  there  should  be  no  intoxicating 
drink  manufactured  or  consumed  in  the  vicinity.  We  also  laid 
gentle  restraints  upon  the  prevalence  of  vice,  and  required  to 
be  notified  in  the  event  of  approaching  death.  Our  transport 
service  was  now  in  a well-organized  condition,  and  natives 
accompanying  the  carts  to  the  River  Paraguay  were  bound  to 
abide  by  certain  rules.  There  were  many  who  evinced  a dis- 
position to  accept  our  Christian  teaching,  but  we  showed  no 
favouritism  to  them  over  and  above  their  heathen  companions. 

We  were  fully  conscious  of  the  fact  that,  although  the  Indians 
on  the  station,  and  those  in  the  vicinity,  adhered  to  the  rules 
we  had  laid  down,  and  willingly  enough  followed  the  new 
system  introduced,  they  nevertheless  still  hankered  after  their 
old  habits  of  life.  They  never  openly  objected  to  conform  to 
the  new  manners,  and  were  evidently  unwilling  to  offend  us 
who  were  their  friends  and  benefactors.  Therefore,  as  is 
frequently  the  Indian  way,  being  torn  between  a desire  to  avoid 
unpleasantness,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  to  gratify  themselves, 
they  cast  about  for  some  excuse  to  leave  our  neighbourhood. 
At  one  time  it  would  be  a hunting  expedition,  at  another  an 
invitation  to  a feast  which  they  could  not  very  well  refuse  ; and 
once  away  from  our  influence,  they  returned  for  the  time  being 
to  their  old  habits.  They  were  frequently  detected,  however,  in 
these  deceptions,  because  we  ourselves  had  been  infected  to  some 

238 


A Bird’s  Nest 

Composed  of  selected  twigs  built  on  to  a trailer 
from  a tree.  The  entrance  is  below. 


A Secret  Still 

Hidden  in  the  forest.  The  beer,  made  either  from  beans,  honey,  or  pumpkins,  is  placed 
in  pots  resting  on  a platform,  with  a covering  of  branches  and  grass  to  promote 
•fermentation. 


DRUNKENNESS 


extent  with  their  erratic  customs,  and  would  often,  without  any 
warning,  set  off  on  a wandering  tour.  During  such  itineraries 
we  frequently  came  unawares  upon  those  who  had  left  us. 

On  one  of  these  occasions  I arrived  unexpectedly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  a village  to  the  West.  On  entering  a cutting 
in  the  forest  I met  two  girls  who  happened  to  be  well  known 
to  me.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  they  would  have  come 
forward  with  great  pleasure  to  greet  me,  but  on  this  occasion,  as 
soon  as  they  caught  sight  of  me,  they  ran  away  in  the  direction 
of  their  village.  I expressed  my  surprise  to  my  two  Indian 
companions,  but  one  of  them  said,  “ Be  quite  still  and  listen.” 
I obeyed,  and  presently  heard  unmistakable  sounds  of  a commo- 
tion, and  occasionally  snatches  of  a drunken  chant.  My  com- 
panions looked  at  me  significantly,  but  said  nothing.  We 
broke  into  a trot,  and  were  soon  at  the  village.  The  people, 
however,  having  been  warned  by  the  girls,  had  been  given  time 
to  prepare  for  our  arrival. 

We  found  only  a few  women  and  girls,  the  chief,  Mechi,  and 
two  men.  Although  they  greeted  me  in  a friendly  enough 
spirit,  it  was  quite  clear  that  I was  not  too  welcome.  I asked 
Mechi  where  his  people  were,  and  he  replied  that  they  were 
away  fishing.  He  wanted  to  know  where  I was  going,  so  I told 
him  that  I was  on  my  way  to  Namuk-amyip.  As  it  was  then 
early  in  the  afternoon,  he  urged  me  to  push  on  to  a village 
conveniently  situated  for  the  night’s  halt,  adding  that  he  hoped 
that  I would  stay  a few  days  with  him  on  my  return.  I informed 
him,  much  to  his  dismay,  that  I thought  I would  stay  with  him 
until  the  evening,  so  that  I might  see  his  people  when  they 
returned.  On  hearing  this  he  continued  to  discuss  the  advisa- 
bility of  my  going  on  at  once,  in  a manner  quite  contrary  to  the 
usual  Indian  courtesy  and  hospitality. 

During  this  conversation  I could  hear  smothered  sounds  pro- 
ceeding intermittently  from  the  forest  near  by.  Mechi  was 
unaware  that  I suspected  the  origin  of  these  sounds,  or  that  I 
was  purposely  delaying  my  departure  in  order  to  substantiate 
my  suspicions.  He  was  visibly  becoming  more  nervous  as  the 
time  went  by,  but,  regardless  of  his  feelings,  we  quietly  seated 

239 


DRUNKENNESS 


ourselves  in  his  hut,  and  he  was,  much  against  his  will,  compelled 
to  go  and  get  us  some  refreshments.  While  he  was  away  I 
whispered  to  one  of  my  Indian  companions,  who  was  courting 
one  of  the  girls  at  this  village,  to  go  at  once  and  find  out  certain 
particulars.  While  we  were  eating,  he  returned,  and  by  a 
sign  notified  me  that  he  had  obtained  the  desired  information. 
Shortly  afterwards,  to  Mechi’s  unfeigned  delight,  we  proceeded 
on  our  journey,  but  halted  under  cover  a short  distance  off. 
Nor  had  we  long  to  wait,  for  soon  the  signs  of  revelry  broke  out 
unrestrained. 

On  my  return  in  a week  or  so,  I spent  a few  days  at  Mechi’s 
village.  When  I arrived  I inquired  after  the  health  of  all  his 
followers,  and  pointedly  expressed  the  hope  that  none  of  them 
were  suffering  from  headache.  They  did  not  at  first  grasp  my 
meaning,  but  they  soon  did  when  I added  the  remark  that  on  my 
departure  I had  heard  the  fishing-party  singing  a peculiar  chant 
while  returning  from  the  swamp.  They  looked  very  confused 
when  once  they  gleaned  how  much  I knew,  and  they  saw  there 
was  no  longer  room  for  concealment. 

It  appears  that  when  the  girls  notified  Mechi  of  my  approach, 
the  women  and  sober  men  had  hastily  removed  the  drinking- 
vessels  to  the  wood,  and  had  then  carried  off'  the  intoxicated 
men,  smothering  their  drunken  cries  by  covering  their  mouths 
with  their  blankets,  and  that  they  had  had  great  difficulty  in  con- 
cealing the  real  state  of  matters  during  my  halt  at  their  village. 

Drunkenness  is  perhaps  one  of  the  easiest  vices  which  it  has 
been  our  lot  to  combat.  The  people  have  abandoned  this 
debasing  habit  with  only  a slight  struggle  wherever  our  influence 
has  been  strongly  exerted,  and  the  Government  of  Paraguay 
has  to  a certain  extent  co-operated  with  us  in  endeavouring  to 
save  the  aborigines  from  this  destructive  curse. 

Our  task  was  not  so  easy  in  dealing  with  cases  of  sickness, 
where  witchcraft  was  all-powerful.  Force  had  sometimes  to  be 
used,  as  in  the  case  of  an  old  woman  who  was  reported  to  be  at 
the  point  of  death.  On  going  to  her  hut  with  one  of  my  colleagues 
we  found  that  she  had  already  been  put  outside,  and  that  the 
people  were  preparing  for  her  burial.  We  examined  her,  and 

240 


SICKNESS 

felt  that  there  was  a possibility  of  at  least  prolonging  her  life, 
so  we  had  her  removed  to  our  own  house,  and  prepared  to  give 
her  some  suitable  nourishment.  This,  however,  she  stoutly 
refused,  maintaining  that  any  attempt  to  revive  her  was  useless, 
an)d  that  she  wanted  to  die.  Without  more  ado  we  forced  her 
to  take  the  food,  and  after  a few  days  of  careful  nursing  she  was 
able  to  move  about,  and  soon  recovered.  She  survived  for 
twelve  years,  and  this  is  one  case  among  many  which  serve  to 
show  how  Indian  life  is  often  prematurely  cut  short  from  the 
want  of  a little  care. 

In  their  heathen  state  it  is  really  impossible  to  do  much  for 
any  sick  Indians,  as  they  have  such  a deep-rooted  aversion  for 
any  methods  contrary  to  those  which  they  themselves  have 
practised  for  ages.  I remember  living  in  a village  when  nearly 
all  the  people  were  reduced  to  helplessness  from  an  epidemic  of 
influenza.  My  colleagues  and  I procured  some  sheep  and  goats, 
and  made  nourishing  soup  for  them,  but  few  of  them  would 
touch  it,  as  they  believe  it  is  bad  for  sick  people.  Even  when 
we  tried  to  administer  medicine  they  would  not  be  satisfied 
unless  we  also  took  it ; and  although  we  were  prepared  to  do 
all  we  could  for  them,  there  was  a limit  to  our  capacity  in  this 
direction.  They  have  now,  however,  an  exaggerated  belief  in 
our  remedies,  and  are  apt  to  apply  to  us  for  medicine  for  the 
slightest  ailments.  I have  on  several  occasions  received  credit 
for  curing  a headache  or  other  slight  disorder  by  the  simple 
remedy  of  a concoction  of  salt  and  coffee  ! 

It  is  comparatively  easy,  when  once  a beginning  has  been 
made,  to  acquire  the  Indian  language  sufficiently  to  deal  with 
ordinary  subjects,  but  when  it  comes  to  imparting  religious 
truth  and  its  abstract  ideas,  considerable  difficulty  arises,  which 
is  accentuated  in  talking  to  a people  such  as  these,  who  are 
prone  to  take  everything  literally.  We  found  no  suitable  word 
in  their  language  by  which  to  express  the  idea  of  the  Deity,  and 
this  caused  us  much  difficulty.  Nor  could  we  express  sin  in  its 
concrete  form,  but  had  to  use  a roundabout  phrase,  implying 
evil  thought,  evil  words,  and  evil  actions.  Their  ideas  of  time 
were  also  very  crude,  and  when  referring  to  persons  in  Old 

241  q 


LANGUAGE  DIFFICULTIES 


Testament  history,  such  as  Abraham,  we  were  frequently  asked 
if  he  was  a tribesman  of  ours,  and  if  we  had  met  him. 

A peculiarity  of  their  language  is  that  when  you  do  not 
speak  from  your  own  knowledge — that  is,  in  reported  speech — 
you  have  continually  to  use  phrases  such  as : “ I have  heard  just 
now  ” ; “I  have  heard  recently  ” ; “I  heard  a long  time  ago  ” ; 
“ It  was  said  that  a long  time  ago  ” ; and  “ It  is  said  that 
So-and-so  said  a long  time  ago.”  So  much  are  these  and  like 
expressions  worked  into  the  structure  of  their  language,  that 
they  resent  any  interference  with  their  rules  of  speech,  of  which 
they  are  very  proud. 

They  have  also  one  form  of  speech  when  addressing  men  and 
another  when  speaking  to  women,  and  in  preaching  to  a mixed 
audience  the  Indians  considered  it  necessary  that  we  should 
address  a statement  first  to  the  men  and  then  to  the  women. 
So  cumbersome  and  time-wasting  were  these  peculiarities  that, 
a sermon  which  need  only  have  taken  half  an  hour,  occupied 
an  hour,  and  we  found  it  advisable,  at  a later  date,  to  ignore 
their  prejudices  somewhat,  and  to  abbreviate  these  tedious  and 
complex  phrases. 

We  have  to  be  very  careful  in  teaching  an  Indian,  since  he 
accepts  everything  literally.  On  one  occasion  I was  exhibiting 
some  lantern  slides,  one  of  which  happened  to  be  a group 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  and  my  audience  at  once  insisted  on 
being  told  which  was  which.  As  it  was  impossible  to  explain 
to  them  that  this  was  only  an  imaginary  group,  I had  to  venture 
to  name  them  individually.  Unfortunately,  at  a later  date,  a 
colleague  altered  the  order  of  their  names,  and  the  natives  con- 
cluded that  he  was  not  by  any  means  acquainted  with  his  subject. 

They  are  keen  observers  of  nature,  and  on  seeing  a picture 
of  an  angel,  they  evidently  puzzled  over  it  for  a long  time,  and 
eventually  remarked  that  they  could  not  understand  how  he 
could  use  his  wings,  since  they  sprang  from  the  backbone, 
instead  of  from  the  shoulder.  It  was  a hard  task  to  make  it 
clear  that  angelic  wings  were  only  symbolical. 

After  two  years  of  teaching  in  the  huts  and  in  the  open,  we 
urged  the  people  to  assist  us  in  erecting  a suitable  building  in 

242 


IRREVERENCE 


which  they  could  meet  for  instruction,  as  the  first  step  to  a 
church ; and  we  impressed  upon  them  that  they  must  behave  in 
an  orderly  and  respectful  manner.  To  their  credit,  be  it  said, 
we  found  little  difficulty,  as  they  are  by  nature  a reverent 
people.  But  on  one  occasion  an  elderly  man,  now  a sincere 
Christian,  evidently  finding  the  discourse  long  and  tedious, 
thought  that  there  would  be  no  harm  in  having  a smoke,  and 
he  accordingly  lighted  his  pipe.  One  of  the  more  advanced 
natives  went  to  inform  him  that  such  a proceeding  was  most 
unseemly.  He  at  once  extinguished  his  pipe,  and  sat  listening 
for  a little  while.  Then,  apparently  feeling  sleepy,  he,  quite  in 
the  Indian  way,  covered  his  head  with  his  blanket,  and  pre- 
sumably composed  himself  for  a nap.  Presently,  what  was  my 
surprise  to  see  smoke  rising  through  his  blanket ! He  was  again 
cautioned,  but  simply  replied,  “ I did  not  think  the  Spirit  would 
see  me,”  affording  another  instance  of  how  an  Indian  tries  to  get 
his  own  way,  without  giving  offence. 

As  the  station  Indians  came  into  constant  contact  with  us, 
they  gradually  acquired  a few  of  our  expressions,  without  making 
any  attempt  to  learn  our  language.  They  frequently  visited  us 
in  our  huts  when  we  were  busy,  and  kept  on  asking  us  many 
questions.  When  we  had  borne  with  them  for  a time,  we  would 
gently  try  to  get  rid  of  them  by  shaking  hands,  moving  towards 
the  door,  and  politely  wishing  them  “ Good-night,”  irrespective 
of  the  time  of  day.  The  Indian  soon  realized  that  this  was 
equivalent  to  saying  : “ I have  finished  talking  to  you  ; you  may 
go.”  We  had  taught  them  to  say  “Amen”  at  the  close  of  a 
prayer,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  old  Indian  just  referred 
to,  they  all  used  this  word ; but  he,  with  a fine  conceit  of  his 
wider  knowledge,  persisted  for  a long  time  in  saying  at  the  end 
of  his  prayer  “ Good-night  ” instead  of  “ Amen.” 


243 


CHAPTER  XXV 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 

As  the  years  passed  by,  and  our  influence  over  the  Indians  grew 
in  proportion  to  the  gradual  increase  in  the  Mission  staff,  our 
work  became  sufficiently  consolidated  to  enable  me  in  1896  to 
leave  on  my  first  furlough  to  England.  But  before  my  departure 
from  the  Chaco  I had  determined,  after  careful  preliminary  pre- 
parations, to  establish  a Mission  in  the  West-south-west  Chaco, 
on  the  borders  of  the  Lengua,  Suhin,  and  Toothli  tribes.  The 
people  of  this  district,  who  had  been  informed  of  our  new 
move  in  their  direction,  seemed  pleased  at  the  prospect,  but  at 
the  same  time  doubtful  whether  we  should  fulfil  our  promise 
to  them.  I had,  however,  already  cut  a rough  cart-track 
to  their  country,  and  had  taken  a bullock-cart  half-way  to 
Mechi’s  village,  and  built  a hut  there  to  serve  as  a half-way 
house. 

After  serious  consideration,  I decided  to  authorize  an  Indian 
named  Poit  to  carry  out  some  preparatory  movements  on  the 
frontier  during  my  absence  in  England.  He  was  at  that  time 
our  most  hopeful  and  capable  adherent,  and  it  was  for  this 
reason  that  I chose  him.  I gave  him  seventeen  head  of  cattle 
and  other  goods  for  barter,  with  definite  instructions  that  he 
was  to  establish  himself  and  his  clan  at  a certain  place,  make  a 
garden,  barter  the  goods  for  sheep  and  goats,  and  the  cattle 
also  as  opportunity  offered.  He  was  to  do  what  he  could  to 
persuade  the  people  to  gather  round  us  as  soon  as  we  could 
send  out  men  to  begin  the  work,  and  to  impress  upon  them  the 
conditions  of  our  residence  among  them.  First,  that  no  native 
beer  should  be  brewed  or  consumed  on  the  station.  Secondly* 

244 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 


that  feasts  must  not  continue  longer  than  three  days.  Thirdly, 
that  no  infanticide  would  be  allowed.  Fourthly,  that  the  people 
must  work  when  called  upon.  Fifthly,  that  they  must  be 
prepared  to  carry  mails  to  the  River  Paraguay,  and  bring  out 
goods  when  required.  Sixthly,  that  they  must  keep  the  cart- 
track  clear,  and  that  the  peace  which  had  already  been  estab- 
lished between  the  three  tribes  must  be  maintained. 

When  we  first  contemplated  the  foundation  of  a new  station 
at  Waikthlatingmangyalwa,  and  sub-stations  in  other  parts,  we 
made  similar  compacts  with  the  natives.  Up  to  this  time  we 
had  every  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  the  way  in  which  they  kept 
their  word.  From  the  year  1893  to  the  present  day  no  Indian 
has  attempted  to  make  or  traffic  in  intoxicating  liquor  on  our 
stations;  and  animals,  such  as  sheep,  goats,  cattle,  and  horses,  left 
in  their  charge  had  always  up  to  this  time  been  scrupulously 
tended.  When  we  first  introduced  cattle  among  them  (they 
had  had  cattle  previously,  but  from  one  cause  and  another  had 
practically  lost  all),  we  stipulated  that  they  should  not  kill  any, 
even  when  the  animals  belonged  to  themselves,  without  our 
permission.  This  was  in  order  that  the  cattle  might  have  every 
opportunity  to  multiply,  until  the  herds  were  sufficiently  large 
to  admit  of  butchering  for  consumption. 

Only  on  two  occasions  was  this  rule  broken,  and,  strange  to 
say,  on  both  with  tragic  results  to  the  men  implicated.  The 
first  man,  while  cleaning  his  gun  after  killing  the  animal, 
somehow  or  other  ignited  his  powder-flask,  with  the  result  that 
he  was  severely  scorched.  Not  until  this  incident  had  been 
almost  forgotten,  was  another  Indian  found  bold  enough  to 
attempt  to  break  the  rule.  His  act  was  followed  by  more 
disastrous  consequences.  His  gun  burst  and  he  lost  the  greater 
portion  of  one  hand.  These  two  cases  had  such  an  effect  upon 
the  Indians,  that  when  one  of  the  staff*  during  my  absence 
ordered  a native  to  kill  one  of  the  Mission  cattle  for  food,  he 
point-blank  refused  until  he  was  assured  that  I had  actually 
given  instructions  to  that  effect. 

We  had  suffered  very  little  from  ordinary  stealing,  and  only 
one  case  of  infanticide  had  been  committed  actually  on  our 

245 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 


station.  When  the  Indians  desired  to  perpetrate  this  crime, 
they  removed  to  some  distance  off  in  order  to  keep  the  fact 
secret. 

Very  little  difficulty  had  been  experienced  in  obtaining  work- 
men when  required  ; in  fact,  we  had  gained  such  an  ascendancy 
over  the  people  that  we  felt  quite  justified  in  making  this  new 
venture  with  Poit. 

Several  men  who  had  been  on  the  staff  had  left  the  Mission, 
owing  to  breakdowns  in  health  and  other  causes,  but  I was  the 
first  who  had  left  the  field  for  any  length  of  time  with  the 
intention  of  returning  to  it.  The  Indians  did  not  grasp  the 
idea  of  a man  going  on  furlough,  and  when  I left  for  England, 
many  of  them  doubted  whether  I should  ever  come  back.  If 
they  expected  me  at  all,  they  guessed  it  would  be  in  the  course 
of  two  or  three  months,  having  no  idea  of  the  distance  I had 
to  travel. 

Poit,  as  the  summer  passed  by,  was  evidently  convinced  that 
I had  gone  for  good.  To  the  Indian,  the  Mission  party  merely 
comprised  a few  men  related  to  each  other — cousins,  brothers, 
uncles,  and  so  on,  and  it  seemed  reasonable  that  I should  be  the 
Chief,  as  I had  been  the  first  to  come  among  them.  They  had 
no  idea  of  our  being  the  representatives  of  a greater  company  in 
another  land,  and  that  the  cattle  and  goods  which  I had  handed 
over  to  Poit  were  really  the  property  of  the  Mission  and  not  my 
own.  Poit,  therefore,  concluding  that  I should  not  return,  con- 
sidered himself  the  owner  of  the  property  I had  left.  It  is  true 
that  I had  assured  him  of  my  ultimate  return,  with  a warning 
that  he  would  certainly  get  into  trouble  if  he  acted  disloyally, 
but  as  everything  from  the  Indian  aspect  pointed  the  other  way, 
he  took  the  risk,  and  appropriated  the  property  left  in  his 
charge  for  his  own  purposes. 

In  their  autumn  when  I returned,  Poit  was  naturally  alarmed, 
and  at  once  took  steps  to  keep  me  in  ignorance  of  what  he  had 
done,  and  as  far  as  possible  to  make  good  what  was  short.  The 
staff,  having  been  reinforced  by  two  men  whom  I brought  out 
from  England,  set  to  work  vigorously  to  enlarge  the  Mission’s 
sphere.  As  the  horse  disease  had  killed  off  our  horses,  and  it  was 

246 


W.  Barbrooke  Grubb 

The  photograph  was  taken  shortly  after  Poit's  attempt  to  murder  him. 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 


dangerous  to  import  more  until  the  possibility  of  contagion  had 
passed,  we  had  to  make  our  journeys  on  foot.  During  the  last 
eight  months  of  the  year  following  upon  my  return,  I had 
travelled  on  foot  over  one  thousand  seven  hundred  miles  under 
very  trying  conditions,  and  by  the  middle  of  December  I was 
feeling  rather  exhausted.  Privations,  fatigue,  and  exposure  had 
begun  to  tell  upon  me. 

During  the  previous  few  months  we  had  been  somewhat 
annoyed  by  thefts  taking  place  on  the  station.  While  I was 
absent  on  one  journey  to  the  River  Paraguay,  twenty-eight 
dollars  were  stolen  from  the  store.  This  money  was  eventually 
recovered,  but  in  such  a roundabout  way,  that  we  could  not 
discover  the  thief.  Reports  also  reached  me  that  Poit  had 
killed  some  of  the  cows  and  sheep  left  in  his  charge.  A gun 
was  also  stolen  about  this  time  from  a cart  which  was  bringing 
in  goods  belonging  to  Professor  Graham  Kerr,  of  Glasgow 
University,  who  was  then  engaged  in  scientific  research  on  our 
station.  The  thief  was  bound  to  know  that  the  weapon  belonged 
to  him,  as  eventually  the  gun  was  found  by  an  Indian  hidden 
near  a forest.  The  circumstances  were  such  as  to  show  that 
the  discovery  had  been  prearranged,  and  many  incidents  con- 
spired to  attach  suspicion  to  Poit. 

About  the  beginning  of  December  some  Toothli  arrived,  and 
asked  when  we  intended  to  begin  work  among  their  people. 
The  season  was  intensely  hot  and  I was  hardly  fit  for  another 
journey,  but  the  need  was  so  pressing  that  it  was  forced  upon 
me.  It  was  necessary  to  sift  thoroughly  the  whole  question  of 
Poit’s  supposed  dishonesty,  and  at  the  same  time  to  reassure  the 
people  in  the  south-west  that  we  fully  intended  to  carry  out  our 
promise  to  them.  The  Mission  Indians  were  unsettled  and 
restless,  and  matters  had  to  be  cleared  up  without  delay.  Any 
vacillation  or  weakness  on  our  part  at  this  crisis  might  have  so 
affected  the  Indians  that  graver  difficulties  would  certainly  have 
arisen. 

I accordingly  prepared,  on  December  13,  to  leave  for  the 
west  on  foot,  with  six  Indians,  of  whom  Poit  was  one. 

One  or  two  coincidences  happened  which  did  not  strike  me  at 

247 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 

the  time,  but  which  became  rather  curious  in  the  light  of  later 
events.  Several  Indians,  for  instance,  strongly  urged  me  not  to 
go,  owing  to  the  length  of  the  road,  the  scarcity  of  water,  the 
great  heat,  and  my  exhausted  condition.  One  woman  came 
forward  just  before  I left,  and  in  a sad  tone  told  me  that  if 
I went  I would  “ leave  my  bones  whitening  on  the  road.”  I 
only  laughed  at  her  and  told  her  I was  strong.  One  of  my 
companions,  who  overheard  this,  called  out  jokingly  as  I went 
away,  “ Remember,  if  you  don’t  come  back,  I am  to  have  this 
thing,”  and  another  shouted,  “ I am  to  have  that.” 

Poit,  as  usual,  acted  as  headman,  and  gave  the  orders  about 
camping  and  the  track  to  be  followed.  As  was  my  custom,  we 
travelled  chiefly  at  night  in  order  to  avoid  the  hot  sun. 

All  went  well  till  I passed  Mechi’s  village.  I had  gone  ahead 
with  Poit,  making  for  a suitable  camping-place  for  the  midday 
halt.  I frequently  noticed  that  my  Indians,  who  were  carrying 
all  my  provisions  and  kit,  were  not  in  sight,  but  I did  not  pay 
much  attention  to  this,  thinking  that  they  had  lagged  behind 
gathering  wild  fruit.  I therefore  rested  beneath  a tree,  and  sent 
Poit  back  to  hurry  them  up. 

A long  time  elapsed  before  he  returned  alone,  bringing  with 
him  my  kettle,  tea,  biscuits,  net,  and  a few  other  goods.  He 
told  me  that  one  of  the  men  had  run  a long  thorn  into  his  foot, 
and  consequently  was  unable  to  walk.  He  added  that  the  others 
were  trying  to  extract  it,  and  that  they  hoped  to  overtake  me 
by  the  evening,  so  he  had  brought  with  him  sufficient  food  for 
that  day.  I afterwards  learned  that  he  had  told  them  I had 
sent  him  back  w'ith  strict  orders  that  they  were  to  return  to  the 
village  we  had  left  that  morning,  and  there  to  await  my  return, 
which  might  not  be  for  some  weeks.  I also  found  out  later,  that, 
in  addition  to  the  kit  which  he  brought  me,  he  took  from  them 
some  bandages  and  medicines  which  I carried  for  emergencies. 
These  he  hid  in  a clump  of  bushes  at  the  roadside,  and  they  were 
afterwards  found  and  restored  to  me,  but  long  after  I returned 
to  the  Mission  station.  It  appears  that  he  instructed  them  to 
take  care  of  the  remainder  of  my  provisions  and  kit  against  my 
return.  The  Indians  admitted  afterwards  that  they  were  very 

248 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 


much  surprised  at  this  order,  but  that,  as  they  believed  Poit  to 
be  telling  the  truth,  they  obeyed. 

We  rested  that  midday,  and  as  the  Indian  carriers  had  not 
come  up  with  us,  we  advanced  towards  our  camping-place  for 
the  night.  It  was  on  this  night  that  I noticed  for  the  first  time 
that  Poit  seemed  preoccupied  and  strange  in  his  manner,  and 
not  his  usual  self.  Still,  I paid  no  particular  attention  to  this, 
as  the  Indians  are  subject  to  fits  of  tristezza,  and  concluded  that 
probably  he  had  had  some  altercation  with  the  village  folk,  or 
that  he  was  tired  and  liverish. 

As  my  carriers  did  not  arrive  that  night,  I was  inclined  to 
wait  for  them  in  the  morning,  but  Poit  suggested  that  they  had 
probably  concluded  we  had  travelled  as  far  as  the  village  of 
Makthlatimes,  and  that  they  had  therefore  taken  the  south 
track,  expecting  to  meet  us  there.  This  seemed  likely,  so  we 
set  out  for  this  village,  and  arrived  there  about  midday,  only  to 
find  that  there  was  no  sign  or  even  word  of  our  porters. 

Poit  expressed  great  surprise  and  indignation  at  this,  and, 
after  talking  over  the  whole  matter  with  me,  agreed  that  there 
could  be  no  reason  why  they  should  not  have  caught  up  with  us, 
for,  even  supposing  they  had  taken  back  the  man  with  the 
wounded  foot  to  Paisiamyalwa,  yet  they  could  have  made  good 
the  delay,  as  we  had  been  travelling  very  slowly.  He  said, 
however,  that  on  our  journey  out,  and  also  at  Paisiamyalwa, 
he  had  just  caught  a few  words  expressing  disapproval  of  my 
trip  to  the  Toothli  country.  The  Lenguas  were  not  on  the 
best  of  terms  with  the  Toothli  at  that  time,  and  he  suggested 
that  it  was  just  possible  that  the  Indians  anticipated  trouble  for 
me  and  themselves,  and  that  they  had  perhaps  decided  to  give 
me  the  slip,  fearing  that  if  anything  happened  to  me,  they  would 
be  held  responsible  by  the  English.  I agreed  with  him  that  this 
was  possible.  I still  had  no  suspicions  that  he  was  playing  me 
false,  not  giving  him  credit  for  such  astuteness  and  power  of 
invention  ; in  fact,  in  my  disappointment  at  the  conduct  of 
my  carriers,  I felt  all  the  more  pleased  with  Poit  for  sticking  so 
closely  to  me.  I was  determined  not  to  be  defeated  in  my  plans 
by  their  desertion,  although  the  loss  of  trained  men  and  my 

249 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 

valuables  was  a serious  one.  I therefore  ordered  Poit  to  recruit 
six  men  from  this  village,  which  was  one  of  his  own  clan,  and  to 
procure  a sufficient  supply  of  sweet  potatoes,  mandioca,  and  any 
other  provisions  he  could  get  together,  to  enable  me  to  pursue 
my  journey. 

The  only  clothes  I had  were  those  which  I stood  up  in — a thin 
cotton  shirt  and  cotton  trousers,  a hat,  no  socks,  and  only  a pair 
of  rather  worn  alpargatas  (canvas  slippers  with  rope  soles). 
Considering  the  nature  of  the  country  I had  to  travel  through, 
it  was  highly  probable  that  these  poor  garments  would  be  worn 
out  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks,  but,  should  the  worst 
come  to  the  worst,  I knew  I could  fall  back  on  an  Indian  blanket, 
to  which  I had  often  had  recourse  before. 

The  six  men  and  provisions  were  procured,  and  that  night  we 
pushed  on  to  a village  where  Poit’s  family  lived.  He  had  by 
this  time  recovered  his  good  spirits,  and  I received  a hearty 
welcome  at  his  village.  I inquired  here  into  the  cattle  question 
and  other  matters,  not  only  from  Poit,  but  (without  his  over- 
hearing me)  from  other  people  of  the  village,  receiving  prompt 
and  frank  replies  to  my  questions.  The  replies  seemed  at  the 
time  to  be  entirely  reassuring,  but  as  they  eventually  proved  to 
be  false,  they  became  conclusive  evidence  that  all  Poit’s  people 
were  in  league  with  him.  Knowing  the  Indian  character  some- 
what, I took  the  precaution  of  telling  them  that  on  the  next  day 
they  must  send  out  their  men  and  collect  all  the  cattle,  that  I 
might  convince  myself  of  the  truth  of  their  statements  with  my 
own  eyes.  They  complied  with  my  wish,  and  long  before  dawn 
sent  out  men  in  all  directions. 

It  must  be  understood  that  these  people  do  not  use  milk  in 
their  native  state,  and  that  they  have  no  such  thing  as  fenced 
paddocks.  The  cattle  are  allowed  to  roam  where  they  please, 
and  are  only  occasionally  rounded  up.  Even  now,  on  our  own 
stations,  it  is  not  unusual  for  cattle  to  stray  thirty  or  forty 
miles  away,  especially  in  time  of  drought.  The  natives  are 
perfectly  honest  in  the  matter  of  live-stock,  and  any  villagers 
meeting  with  stray  cattle,  will  round  them  up  with  their  own 
stock.  I was  not  therefore  altogether  surprised  when,  on  the 

250 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 


return  of  the  men,  they  informed  me  that  they  had  only  brought 
up  about  two-thirds  of  the  number,  but  that  they  had  heard 
from  natives  they  had  met  that  the  others  had  mixed  with  the 
cattle  of  villages  too  far  distant  for  them  to  visit.  Not  caring 
to  waste  time,  I ordered  them  to  have  all  the  cattle  collected 
and  kept  near  the  village  by  my  return  in  a few  weeks’  time, 
which  they  readily  agreed  to  do.  I afterwards  discovered  that 
they  had  lied  to  me,  and  that  the  missing  cattle  were  at  the 
very  time  in  the  village,  but  transformed  into  men,  women,  and 
children ; in  other  words,  they  had  eaten  them. 

Next  day  I proceeded  on  my  journey,  and  on  Saturday  night 
camped  at  the  last  frontier  Lengua  village.  Sunday  was 
pleasantly  spent  with  the  people,  and  Poit  was  extremely 
gracious  and  kind.  Nothing  could  have  been  pleasanter.  On 
Sunday  night  I had  an  attack  of  malaria,  and  felt  rather  weak 
on  Monday  morning.  A heavy  dew  had  fallen,  and  as  the  route 
lay  for  a considerable  way  through  tall  and  soaking  wet  grass, 
Poit,  together  with  many  of  the  people,  urged  me  to  delay  my 
departure  until  the  sun  had  risen  sufficiently  to  dry  the  grass. 

It  was  midsummer,  and  I had  intended  starting  in  spite  of 
the  fever  when  the  morning  star  arose — that  is,  about  3.30  a.m. 
— in  order  to  cover  the  twenty  miles  to  the  next  village  before 
the  sun  became  too  oppressive.  Feeling  rather  ill,  however,  I 
yielded  to  the  entreaty  of  the  natives,  and  consented  to  defer 
my  setting  out  till  about  6.30  a.m.,  which  gave  the  sun  an  hour 
and  a quarter  to  absorb  the  dew.  When  it  is  remembered  that 
the  heat  at  that  period  of  the  year  averages  106°  F.  in  the 
shade,  its  drying  power  can  be  readily  realized. 

Poit  recommended  me  to  send  the  men  on  ahead  with  my  kit, 
in  order  to  prepare  the  Toothli  for  my  arrival.  He  said  he 
knew  a short  cut  through  the  forest,  and  that  in  every  way  it 
would  be  better  for  me  to  act  as  he  suggested.  I accordingly 
sent  them  on  in  advance.  He  made  my  breakfast,  and  was  very 
solicitous  as  to  my  health.  While  I was  eating,  he  said  that  he 
thought  it  advisable  to  borrow  some  better  weapons  from  his 
friends  at  the  village.  He  was  only  armed  with  wooden-pointed 
barbed  arrows  and  a club,  and  he  wished  to  borrow  iron-headed 

251 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 


arrows  instead,  as  jaguars  had  been  reported  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  as  I was  unarmed  he  would  be  better  equipped  in 
case  of  accidents.  He  accordingly  went  to  the  village,  and 
returned  with  the  necessary  iron-headed  arrows.  He  then 
borrowed  from  me  a small  triangular  file,  and  sat  down  beside 
me  conversing  and  sharpening  the  blades,  and  now  and  then 
waited  on  me  with  tea.  The  scraping  so  irritated  me  in  my 
malarial  condition  that  I ordered  him  to  complete  the  operation 
at  a distance.  I little  thought  at  the  time  that  his  desire  to 
put  a keen  edge  on  the  blades  was  on  my  own  special  account. 

Eventually  we  proceeded  on  our  journey.  After  a time  we 
left  the  beaten  track,  and  he  confessed  that  he  was  uncertain 
about  the  best  course  to  take.  We  crossed  the  River  Monte 
Lindo  four  times,  as  it  winds  very  much  in  this  locality ; but  it 
was  fortunately  rather  low  at  the  time,  so  only  once  had  we  to 
swim  a few  strokes. 

I became  very  angry  with  him  for  having  asserted  that  he 
knew  a good  track,  and  then  landing  me  in  this  difficulty  in  my 
weak  condition.  He  appeared  very  sorry.  Just  before  crossing 
the  river  for  the  fourth  time  we  encountered  the  fresh  spoor  of 
a jaguar,  which  must  have  passed  early  that  morning.  A few 
minutes  after  this  we  saw  an  Indian  out  hunting  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  river,  and  Poit  enlarged  to  him  upon  the  jaguar 
tracks  we  had  just  passed.  The  man — an  elderly  one — appeared 
by  no  means  too  well  pleased  at  the  news,  and  signified  his 
intention  of  moving  off  to  the  open  country,  evidently  not 
caring  to  risk  an  encounter. 

Presently  we  entered  the  forest,  but  soon  came  to  a dead 
stop.  The  bush  was  seemingly  impenetrable.  Poit  left  me, 
and  said  he  would  reconnoitre.  After  a while  I heard  just 
ahead  of  me,  at  a distance  of  apparently  only  some  twenty-five 
yards,  the  crackling  of  branches,  such  as  would  be  caused  by  the 
progress  of  a man  or  animal.  I immediately  thought  of  the 
jaguar,  and  halloed  for  Poit,  at  the  same  time  shouting  to  scare 
the  beast  if  such  it  should  be.  Shortly  afterwards  I saw  Poit 
peering  through  the  trees,  with  a strange  look  on  his  face  as  of 
excitement  and  fear  combined.  I particularly  remarked  this,  as 

252 


A MURDEROUS  ATTACK 


it  was  a look  I had  never  before  seen  on  an  Indian’s  face.  I did 
not  think  much  of  it,  however,  beyond  imagining  that  probably 
he,  too,  was  scared  at  the  prospect  of  seeing  a jaguar. 

I asked  him  how  he  managed  to  get  round  there,  and  he 
replied,  “ With  difficulty  ” ; but  that  from  where  he  was  the 
way  was  fairly  clear,  and  that  I should  try  and  work  through  to 
him  from  where  I was.  He  presently  said  : “You  are  not  able 
to  do  it.  Wait,  and  I will  join  you.”  In  a few  minutes  he  was 
by  my  side.  We  were  in  a very  small  open  space,  not  larger 
than  a moderate-sized  room,  with  dense  undergrowth  all  around, 
and  the  river  close  behind  us.  I ordered  him  to  go  ahead  and 
break  a way  through.  He  replied:  “Wait  a minute;  I have 
forgotten  the  kettle  and  went  off  to  fetch  it,  telling  me  to 
open  a passage  as  much  as  I could  to  save  time.  I did  not 
realize  that  when  I saw  him  ahead  of  me  he  had  actually  been 
manoeuvring  to  get  a fair  shot  at  me,  and  that  the  strange 
expression  I had  seen  on  his  face  was  the  result  of  acute  tension 
and  fear  of  discovery. 

I was  bending  down,  trying  to  cleave  a way,  when  suddenly 
I felt  a sharp  blow  in  my  back,  just  below  the  right  shoulder- 
blade,  close  to  the  spine.  I rose  up  and  saw  Poit,  about  four 
or  five  paces  off,  with  a look  of  horror  on  his  face.  My  first 
thought  was  of  the  jaguar — that  he  had  shot  at  it,  and  in  his 
excitement  hit  me  instead.  I told  him  to  come  to  my  assistance, 
but  he  cried  out  : “ O Mr.  Grubb ! O Mr.  Grubb !”  (a  most 
unusual  expression,  the  Indians  always  addressing  me  by  my 
Indian  name,  Yiphenabanyetik).  Then  with  a sharp  cry  of  pain 
and  terror,  “ Ak-kai ! Ak-kai !”  he  rushed  off  towards  the  river, 
and  was  lost  to  sight. 


INDIAN  CLAY  PIPE-BOWL. 

253 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 

It  is  well  known  that  in  times  of  danger  the  brain  works  with 
remarkable  rapidity  and  clearness.  It  was  so  with  me  on  this 
occasion.  I was  perfectly  calm  and  clear-headed,  and  Poit’s 
real  intent,  with  the  whole  series  of  his  villainous  devices  and 
inventions,  passed  vividly  through  my  mind.  I felt  no  pain, 
which  was  quite  natural,  for  a sudden  shock  such  as  this  was 
tends  to  deaden  the  nerves. 

Blood  was  spouting  from  my  back,  and  soon  from  my  mouth 
too.  The  iron  arrow-head  (seven  inches  long  by  one  inch  wide) 
had  penetrated  so  far  that  I could  only  get  three  of  my  fingers 
on  the  protruding  part  of  the  blade,  the  shaft  (a  cane  one) 
being  completely  shivered.  I realized  in  an  instant  the  proba- 
bility that  I should  swoon,  and  so  made  for  the  river  in  order  to 
refresh  myself  by  plunging  into  the  water.  Before  doing  so, 
however,  I took  out  my  watch — one  borrowed  from  a colleague, 
Richard  Hunt — and  laid  it  on  the  bank. 

The  water  revived  me  somewhat,  and  I then  proceeded  to 
extract  the  arrow.  This  caused  me  great  difficulty  owing  to  its 
awkward  position,  and  having  to  work  it  backwards  and  for- 
wards, up  and  down,  in  order  to  free  it  from  its  wedged  position 
in  the  ribs.  The  arrow-head  had  entered  perpendicularly  and  in 
an  oblique  direction,  and  thus  had  met  with  the  resistance  of  the 
ribs.  Had  it  entered  horizontally,  with  no  such  obstacle,  the 
injury  to  the  lungs  would  have  been  far  more  serious.  On 
extracting  it,  I found  that  the  point  was  bent  and  twisted, 
which  partly  accounted  for  the  difficulty  I had  in  pulling  it  out. 

I then  returned  to  the  forest,  picked  up  the  watch,  my  kettle, 

254 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 

and  the  few  things  left  me  by  Poit,  and  entered  the  water, 
walking  along  the  river-edge  in  order  to  hide  my  tracks,  in  case 
Poit,  on  discovering  that  he  had  not  killed  me  outright,  should 
return  to  complete  his  work.  My  object  was  to  endeavour  to 
strike  the  track  we  had  followed  that  morning,  and  I succeeded 
in  crossing  the  river  three  times,  but  at  the  fourth  crossing  I 
nearly  sank  in  mid-stream.  I was  exhausted  from  the  exertion 
of  this  and  my  previous  attempts,  and  had  grown  so  weak  from 
the  loss  of  so  much  blood,  that  I was  forced  to  climb  the 
opposite  bank  on  all-fours ; but  before  leaving  the  river  I,  for 
the  second  time,  wrung  out  the  blood  from  my  shirt. 

Bleeding  at  the  mouth  still  continued  at  intervals,  and  I felt 
convinced,  from  what  little  knowledge  I possessed,  that  I could 
not  live  much  longer  than  an  hour,  if  as  long.  My  great  desire, 
therefore,  was,  if  possible,  to  reach  the  beaten  track  before  I 
died,  so  that  some  passing  Indian  might  discover  my  body,  and 
that  the  fact  and  manner  of  my  death  might  through  him  reach 
my  friends.  I was  in  every  way  desirous  of  saving  my  com- 
panions and  relatives  as  much  anxiety  as  possible  as  to  my 
actual  fate,  for  otherwise  they  might  have  surmised  that  I had 
been  taken  captive,  as  it  was  well  known  that  Indians  had  kept 
foreigners  prisoners  for  years. 

I succeeded  in  reaching  the  path  I was  looking  for,  and  lay 
down  under  a spreading  algaroba  tree  to  die,  first  placing  the 
arrow  beside  me  to  tell  the  tale.  I had  not  been  in  this  position 
more  than  a few  minutes,  when,  to  my  joy,  I saw  an  Indian 
coming  towards  me.  He  was  horrified  to  find  me  in  such  a con- 
dition ; but  I was  only  able  to  say  that  Poit  had  shot  me,  being 
too  weak  to  give  him  any  details. 

He  at  once  raised  me,  and,  telling  me  I was  close  to  his 
village,  he  assisted  me  towards  it  with  tender  care. 

On  my  arrival,  astonishment  and  horror  fell  upon  the  village. 
They  laid  me  down  in  one  of  their  huts,  and  gave  me,  when  I 
asked  for  it,  a drink  of  water.  After  resting  a time  I felt  very 
weak  and  shaken,  being  overspent  with  the  nervous  strain. 

The  touch  of  the  blood-soaked  shirt  and  trousers,  and  still 
more  the  sight  of  them,  revolted  me,  so  I told  a woman  to  take 

255 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


off  my  shirt  and  wash  it,  for  it  was  saturated  and  clotted  with 
blood.  She  tenderly  removed  the  shirt,  and  proceeded  to  rinse 
it  in  a half-gourd.  I began  to  feel  dizzy,  and  my  sight  grew 
dim.  I could  distinguish  nothing  but  blurred  forms,  and  I 
feared  I was  about  to  swoon.  I again  asked  for  water,  and  a 
gourd  was  placed  near  me ; but  it  happened  that  the  one  in 
which  my  shirt  had  been  washed  was  also  close  by.  Being 
dazed,  I had  not  been  able  to  follow  all  that  had  happened, 
but  managed  to  seize  a gourd,  and  had  already  drunk  some 
mouthfuls  when  a woman  sprang  forward  and  took  it  from 
me.  I was  afterwards  informed  by  them  that  I had  actually 
been  drinking  the  blood  washed  from  my  shirt. 

Towards  evening  I began  to  suffer  great  pain,  and  was  so 
weak  that  I could  not  move  without  help.  Just  before  sunset 
the  people  came  frequently  to  look  at  me,  and  I could  some- 
times catch  words  of  reference  to  my  approaching  death.  This 
terrified  me — not  the  fear  of  death  itself  (which  I felt  sure  could 
not  be  very  far  distant,  even  if  not  from  the  actual  wound  itself, 
at  least  from  the  complications  which  I felt  would  inevitably 
ensue),  but  because  of  my  knowledge  of  the  barbarous  burial 
customs  practised  by  these  people  in  accordance  with  their 
religious  tenets. 

That  night  was  to  me  a night  of  horror  and  discomfort,  and, 
to  add  to  my  pain,  a roving  goat  landed  squarely  upon  my 
chest.  Having  no  net,  I also  suffered  much  from  the  swarms  of 
mosquitos,  but  not  so  much  as  I should  have  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  owing  to  the  dulled  state  of  my  nerves. 

Next  morning  (Tuesday,  December  21)  I was  still  alive,  but 
barely.  The  people  were  very  kind  to  me,  doing  all  they  could 
to  tempt  me  with  food,  of  which  I managed  to  take  a little. 
Unfortunately  I could  understand  all  that  the  people  said,  for 
my  brain  was  clearer,  although  to  talk  to  them  was  too  great  an 
effort. 

The  news  of  the  attempt  on  my  life  was  soon  sent  round  the 
country,  and  people  came  in  from  the  neighbouring  villages  to 
see  me,  among  others  some  of  the  Toothli,  and  with  them  the 
men  who  had  been  sent  on  ahead  on  the  previous  morning. 

256 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


They  brought  back  my  mosquito-net,  some  tea  and  sugar,  and 
a few  biscuits,  thus  placing  me  in  a better  position  than  on  the 
previous  day  and  night. 

I now  became  very  anxious  to  send  news  of  my  plight  to  the 
Mission  station  at  Waikthlatingmangyalwa,  which  I knew  would 
bring  me  prompt  assistance.  I therefore  asked  for  a messenger 
to  carry  the  news  to  the  next  village,  and  the  man  who  found 
me  under  the  tree,  Wischi-apkyitkya-aptawa  by  name,  volun- 
teered to  go,  but  I had  no  guarantee  that  he  would  take  the 
message.  There  was  some  doubt  in  my  mind  as  to  the  attitude 
of  the  people  generally.  Naturally  I did  not  know  them  as 
well  then  as  I do  now,  but  I was  sufficiently  acquainted  with 
their  character  to  be  aware  that  in  some  ways  they  were  re- 
markably deep  and  subtle,  especially  in  the  light  of  recent 
events.  Their  solicitude  for  me  might,  therefore,  I thought, 
be  not  unmingled  with  other  motives.  But  the  main  question 
was,  Would  they  risk  carrying  the  news,  and  thus  bringing 
their  countryman  into  trouble?  However,  it  was  just  as  well 
to  try  the  experiment  of  getting  news  through.  As  it  after- 
wards turned  out,  the  natives  were  sincere  in  their  kindness  to 
me,  and  genuinely  indignant  with  their  countryman  ; so  the 
message  was  hurried  forward  by  relays  from  village  to  village, 
and  soon  reached  the  station. 

After  sending  off  Wischi-apkyitkya-aptawa  with  the  news,  I 
received  the  various  visitors  who  had  come  in  to  see  me,  as  far 
as  my  weak  condition  would  permit.  They  were  all  very  kind 
and  sympathetic,  and  avowed  their  great  resentment  against 
Poit.  They  asserted  that  he  would  certainly  be  killed ; but  this, 
of  course,  I did  not  believe,  regarding  it  only  as  an  expression 
of  courtesy  on  their  part. 

On  leaving  me,  they  all,  without  exception,  imparted  the 
pleasing  information  that  I could  not  possibly  live.  Their 
experience  in  warfare,  they  told  me,  was  that  they  never  knew 
a man  so  injured  to  survive.  They  informed  me,  however,  that 
they  would  treat  me  with  the  greatest  possible  consideration, 
and  that  they  had  selected  an  exceptionally  good  site  for  my 
last  resting-place  under  a shady  tree,  where  I should  not  be 

257 


R 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


annoyed  by  the  rays  either  of  the  moon  or  of  the  sun.  They 
knew  my  strong  objection  to  sleeping  in  the  moonlight,  and 
said  that  they  therefore  hoped  that  when  dead  I would  bear 
them  no  ill-will.  They  had  always  been  friends,  had  always 
obeyed  me,  and  they  trusted  I would  not  forget  it.  They  con- 
cluded by  saying : “ Friend,  the  sun  is  about  to  set  ; make 
yourself  strong,  and  do  not  die  till  to-morrow.” 

Just  as  the  shades  of  night  began  to  gather,  the  women  and 
even  some  of  the  bigger  children  kept  coming  over  to  me,  and 
saying  : “ It’s  getting  dark — are  you  strong  ? Make  yourself 
strong.  Don’t  die  to-night ; we  are  sleeping  here.  Wait  until 
to-morrow  to  die.” 

Their  anxiety  about  my  death  was  to  a great  extent  due  to 
fear  lest  I should  die  in  the  night,  which  would  fill  them  with 
terror  of  my  spirit.  Knowing,  therefore,  that  their  custom 
was  to  bury  a person  alive  before  the  sun  set  if  there  was 
any  great  likelihood  of  his  death  occurring  in  the  night,  I 
felt  not  only  particularly  uncomfortable,  but  was  compelled, 
much  against  my  inclination,  to  make  a supreme  effort  to  prove 
to  them  as  forcibly  as  possible,  that  I had  still  a very  consider- 
able amount  of  life  left  in  me.  I invariably  kept  assuring  them 
that  I had  no  intention  whatever  of  dying  that  night,  and 
although  I doubted  my  assertion,  I gave  them  to  understand 
that  it  would  be  from  no  lack  of  effort  on  my  part.  But 
although  they  partly  accepted  the  first  statement,  they  shook 
their  heads  and  looked  incredulous  at  the  last,  as  much  as  to 
say,  “ You  might  possibly  live  through  the  night,  but  you 
certainly  can’t  last  long.”  I frequently  overheard  snatches  of 
conversation  during  the  day  and  night,  which  were  hardly  calcu- 
lated to  cheer  or  encourage  a dying  man. 

I firmly  believe  that  it  was  only  by  a constant  effort  of  will, 
sustained  by  the  power  of  God,  that  I was  enabled  at  times  to 
resist  swooning.  The  Indian  regards  swooning  and  dying  as 
more  or  less  identical,  and  the  word  for  both  is  the  same,  so 
that  had  I swooned  for  even  a comparatively  short  space  of  time, 
they  undoubtedly  would  have  had  no  hesitation  at  all  in  burying 
me ; in  fact,  I was  aware  from  snatches  of  conversation  I had 

258 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


overheard  that  they  had  already  made  most  of  the  necessary 
preparations  for  the  ceremony. 

They  were  kind  enough  this  night  to  put  up  my  mosquito- 
net,  and  to  erect  a rude  fence  of  boughs  round  me  to  keep  off 
the  dogs  and  goats.  Within  the  net,  which  was  of  thickish 
calico,  I could  not  be  seen,  and  they  themselves  had  that  night 
retired  to  the  farther  end  of  the  village,  evidently  anticipating 
that  my  death  was  imminent,  and  not  wishing  to  encounter  my 
spirit.  This  enabled  me  to  have  a much  better  night’s  rest,  but 
before  they  left  me  I was  again  questioned  about  my  strength, 
of  which,  in  spite  of  my  stout  assurances,  they  again  evidently 
had  misgivings.  However,  I was  left  in  peace  the  whole  of  that 
night. 

On  the  morrow  I felt  a little  stronger,  and,  as  may  be 
imagined,  I was  very  anxious  to  work  my  way  eastwards  towards 
the  station.  If  I could  once  cover  seventy  miles  of  country,  I 
should  then  be  within  the  actual  sphere  of  the  Mission’s  influence, 
and  could  feel  comparatively  safe.  Accordingly,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  natives,  although  they  remonstrated  with  me, 
I determined  to  make  an  effort  to  travel,  however  slowly.  But 
I was  so  weak  that  it  only  ended  in  my  staggering  and  falling 
when  left  to  myself.  1 was  therefore  compelled  for  the  time  to 
give  up  the  attempt. 

On  regaining  my  shelter,  the  people  kindly  made  a rest  for 
my  back  by  rigging  up  some  sticks,  thus  enabling  me  to  sit  up. 
Towards  midday,  with  the  help  of  the  Indians,  I attempted 
to  start  eastward,  and  contrived  this  time  to  make  some 
progress. 

After  stumbling  along  for  two  miles,  I met  Wisehi-apkyitkya- 
aptawa  returning  from  delivering  my  message  at  the  next 
village.  He  was  painted  in  mourning,  for  the  report  had 
reached  the  place  that  I was  dead.  He  told  me  the  news  of 
Poit’s  movements,  that,  after  leaving  me  for  dead,  he  had  deter- 
mined to  go  straight  to  the  Mission  station  to  carry  the  report 
of  my  death  to  my  companions,  and  that  he  had  reached  a 
village  about  half-way  there,  intending  to  go  on  as  soon  as  he 
had  rested  awhile.  The  story  Poit  concocted  was  that  we  had 

259 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


met  a jaguar  in  the  wood,  which  had  attacked  me,  and  that  he, 
shooting  at  it  in  my  defence,  had  missed  his  mark  and  struck 
me  instead.  Strange  to  say,  this  story  tallied  almost  exactly 
with  the  impression  that  flashed  across  my  mind  when  I was 
shot.  He  further  told  me  that  on  hearing  Poit’s  account  of  my 
death,  two  of  the  Indians  at  this  half-way  village  signified  their 
intention  of  leaving  at  once  with  the  news,  as  he  was  worn  out. 

But  just  as  they  were  starting,  a man  was  seen  approaching 
with  marks  of  mourning  on  his  body.  He  turned  out  to  be  the 
relay  messenger  sent  on  from  the  next  village  by  Wischi- 
apkyitkya-aptawa.  Poit  no  sooner  saw  his  signs  of  mourning 
and  warlike  attitude  than  it  instantly  dawned  upon  him  that 
someone  had  discovered  my  body  and  realized  that  there  had 
been  foul  play.  They  could  not,  of  course,  have  known  even 
then  that  Poit  had  wilfully  shot  me,  but  his  guilty  conscience 
evidently  affected  him  so  much  that  without  a word  he  ran  off 
at  full  speed  to  the  forest,  and  was  not  again  seen  for  about  a 
fortnight. 

The  man  bearing  my  message  explained  to  the  people  the  real 
state  of  affairs,  and  they  in  turn  sent  on  a message  to  Waikth- 
latingmangyalwa,  with  the  true  account  instead  of  Poit’s  fabri- 
cated story. 

After  telling  me  all  this  news,  Wischi-apkyitkya-aptawa 
drew  six  arrows  from  his  belt,  and  flourishing  them  above  his 
head,  solemnly  declared  that  he  would  put  every  one  of  them 
through  Poit’s  body  if  he  ever  found  him,  and  then  broke  down 
crying. 

When  he  saw  the  slow  progress  I was  making,  he  offered  to 
carry  me  on  his  back,  but  this  was  not  practicable.  He,  how- 
ever, turned  back  with  me  and  the  two  men  who  were  helping 
me  along. 

After  much  difficulty,  and  suffering  great  pain,  I arrived  at 
Poit’s  village,  having  travelled  for  three  and  a half  hours.  They 
received  me  very  kindly,  and  at  once  killed  a sheep,  and  made 
me  some  strong  broth  of  it.  I was  in  much  need  of  some 
strengthening  nourishment,  and  it  revived  me  greatly.  The  old 
women  displayed  great  grief  at  my  pitiable  condition,  while  the 

260 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 

men  stood  by  sadly  sympathizing.  I overheard  the  Chief’s  wife 
saying  in  a solemn  tone  to  her  companions,  “Just  look  at  him 
now,  and  only  a few  days  ago  he  came  in  here  so  strong  and 
cheerful,  and  singing  our  songs ! And,”  she  added,  “ he  said  to 
me  when  he  came  in,  £ Auntie,  have  you  any  potatoes  ?’  And 
now  look  at  him  all  covered  with  blood  and  about  to  die !” 
Then  some  of  them  burst  out  crying.  I stayed  here  only  to 
drink  the  soup,  and  in  the  afternoon  reached  another  village, 
where  I spent  the  night.  The  wound  occasionally  broke  out 
bleeding  slightly,  and  from  time  to  time  small  quantities  of 
blood  came  from  my  mouth,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  exertion 
and  the  jars  experienced  when  I stumbled. 

The  next  day  fair  progress  was  made  with  the  same  help. 
About  midday  the  Indians  took  me  to  the  shade  of  a small 
wood  in  an  open  plain,  and  told  me  they  must  leave  me  for  a 
while  and  go  off  hunting.  I was  too  exhausted  to  move  about 
much  by  myself,  so  I settled  down  to  sleep.  The  insects  were 
an  intense  worry,  but  I did  manage  to  sleep  a little,  how  long  I 
cannot  exactly  say.  I awoke  with  a start,  and  distinctly  heard 
someone  moving  on  the  outskirts  of  the  wood  on  the  far  side. 
I knew  it  was  a man  from  certain  peculiar  noises  other  than  the 
tread,  and  my  suspicions  were  at  once  aroused,  for,  in  spite  of 
the  kindness  of  the  people,  I still  felt  very  distrustful  of  them, 
and  would  have  tried  to  evade  them  and  endeavour  to  find  my 
own  way  eastward  had  I felt  equal  to  the  task. 

It  now  flashed  across  my  mind  that  either  these  men  had  left 
me  on  purpose  to  notify  Poit,  who  might  even  then  be  lurking 
near  in  order  to  complete  his  foul  deed,  and  that  the  story  of 
Wischi-apkyitkya-aptawa  was  false,  or  that  they  themselves 
intended  to  kill  me  while  slumbering  alone  in  the  open  country 
and  away  from  their  villages.  By  so  doing  they  would  destroy 
any  possible  clue,  and  prevent  any  revenge  being  taken  by  my 
companions,  who  might  call  in  the  aid  of  the  foreigner.  I knew 
they  were  afraid  of  vengeance  being  wreaked  upon  them  by  the 
Paraguayan  soldiery,  for  they  had  frequently  asked  me  if  it  was 
my  intention  to  hand  them  over  to  the  authorities.  They  were 
barely  reassured  by  my  saying  that  such  would  never  be  the 

261 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


case,  for  they  still  thought  that  although  the  vengeance  might 
not  come  through  any  act  of  mine,  yet  my  companions  would 
insist  upon  it.  It  is  a strange  coincidence  that  at  one  and  the 
same  time  the  Indians  feared  vengeance  from  the  foreigners  and 
the  missionaries  feared  an  attack  from  the  Indians — in  fact,  so 
imminent  did  this  seem  that,  as  I afterwards  learnt,  my  colleagues 
had  instructed  the  station  Indians  to  intercept  any  news  or 
signs  of  a rising. 

This  digression  is  necessary  in  order  to  show  the  reader  what 
extreme  tension  there  was  on  both  sides  at  the  time,  and  to 
account  for  my  suspicions  of  further  foul  play,  for  knowing  to 
some  extent  the  thoughts  that  were  running  in  the  Indians’ 
minds,  I felt  convinced  that  the  stealthy  sounds  I had  heard 
near  me  as  I lay  in  the  wood  boded  no  good.  I at  once  resolved, 
therefore,  to  try  and  escape,  and  succeeded  in  getting  clear  of 
the  wood.  I managed  to  travel  on  for  part  of  the  afternoon 
without  any  help,  frequently  and  purposely  diverging  from  the 
beaten  track. 

In  course  of  time,  however,  the  Indians  overtook  me,  and 
were  as  much  upset  as  I was.  They  told  me  that  on  returning 
to  the  wood,  they  were  filled  with  alarm  at  not  finding  me  there, 
and  immediately  spread  out  in  order  to  track  me.  They  brought 
with  them  some  honey,  which  they  said  was  to  be  reserved 
entirely  for  my  use.  I was  so  touched  by  this  kindness  and 
thoughtfulness  that  I could  not  bring  myself  to  confess  my 
recent  suspicions  of  them,  and  I realized  more  fully  than  before 
that  without  their  aid  and  kind  tendance  I could  never  have 
got  thus  far. 

I was  in  such  a state  that  nearly  all  food  was  repulsive  to  me, 
and  I subsisted  chiefly  on  the  algaroba  bean.  The  few  biscuits 
I had  saved,  and  which  I could  have  enjoyed,  had  been  taken 
from  me  by  a kindly-disposed  Toothli  at  the  first  village,  who 
assured  me  quite  frankly  that,  as  I certainly  could  not  live,  and 
therefore  would  not  i-equire  them,  he  would  very  much  like  to 
take  the  remaining  three  to  his  children,  which  he  forthwith 
did.  There  was  no  real  unkindness  in  this,  for  he  was  firmly 
convinced  that  I would  never  need  another  biscuit,  and  as  he 

262 


Keamapsithyo,  Afterwards  Called  Philip 

The  first  photograph  of  a Lengua  taken  with  his  consent 

When  nailed  up  in  Mr.  Grubb’s  hut  it  was  promptly  torn  down  by  super- 
stitious Indians,  who  regarded  it  as  the  soul  of  Philip  which  he  had  stolen, 
thus  explaining  the  influence  he  had  over  him. 

The  show  ot  ornaments  is  typical  of  an  Indian  dandy  ; but  the  feather 
anklets  are  worn  chiefly  as  a protection  from  snake-bite 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


and  others  had  made  a special  visit  to  me  from  their  country, 
he  thought  he  might  just  as  well  take  them  as  leave  them  to  be 
eaten  by  the  Lenguas.  The  honey,  therefore,  was  most  welcome. 
It  had  healing  as  well  as  nutritive  properties,  and  the  natives 
assured  me  that  it  would  heal  the  wound  from  the  inside. 
Fortunately  for  me,  the  wound,  according  to  the  Indians,  showed 
no  signs  of  suppurating. 

That  night  we  slept  in  the  open  country.  In  the  morning 
(Friday),  instead  of  feeling  stronger,  I was  much  weaker,  but 
nevertheless  made  a very  early  start.  The  Indians,  however, 
soon  realized  that  I could  not  go  much  farther  in  my  weak  con- 
dition, so  one  of  them  went  on  ahead  to  the  nearest  village  to 
secure  a horse.  I could  have  obtained  a horse  before,  but  I felt 
unable  to  ride,  as  the  Indians  use  no  saddles,  and  the  jarring 
would  have  been  too  great.  Before  long  he  returned  with  one, 
and  there  was  no  other  help  for  it  but  to  mount.  They  tenderly 
placed  me  on  its  back,  but  had  to  hold  me  on.  In  a short  time 
we  arrived  at  the  village.  There  I met  one  of  Poit’s  aunts,  and 
although  all  the  people  received  me  graciously,  she  insisted  on 
sitting  by  me,  and  by  continually  fanning  gave  me  relief  from 
the  insects  and  the  heat. 

Not  long  after  my  arrival  I was  glad  to  see  two  of  the 
Mission  party  riding  towards  me  with  two  Indians,  Keamapsithyo 
and  his  brother  Manuel.  On  the  arrival  of  this  party  I seemed 
to  break  down  altogether.  The  nervous  strain  was  relaxed,  and 
physical  weakness  had  its  way.  They  told  me  that  they  had 
gone  right  on  to  Poit’s  village,  but  finding  there  that  they  had 
missed  me,  had  ridden  back,  and  had  very  nearly  lost  me  a 
second  time.  The  cause  of  this  was  that  when  I went  off  on  my 
own  account,  I had  diverged  to  the  south  from  the  main  track. 

We  rested  all  that  day,  and  remained  the  night.  My  wound 
was  dressed,  and  they  had  brought  with  them  suitable  food, 
restoratives  and  medicine.  Keamapsithyo  slept  with  me  under 
my  net  that  night  in  order  to  be  at  hand  to  attend  to  me,  and 
he  behaved  as  well  as  the  best  trained  nurse  could  have  done. 
When  I required  to  turn,  he  gently  assisted  me ; when  I wished 
to  cough,  he  tenderly  raised  me;  he  brought  me  water  and 

263 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


restoratives  when  wanted,  and  fanned  me  most  of  the  night 
because  of  the  heat. 

The  nest  day,  mounting  me  on  a horse  they  had  specially 
selected  for  the  purpose,  and  with  a suitable  saddle,  they  pro- 
ceeded towards  Mechi’s  village  (Paisiamyalwa),  but  I was  so 
weak  that  I had  to  be  held  on  and  plied  constantly  with 
stimulants.  Frequently  they  had  to  take  me  off  and  lay  me  on 
the  ground.  I had  collapsed  so  much  that  it  was  only  by 
the  help  of  brandy  and  strong  ammonia  that  they  managed  to 
get  me  along,  and  just  before  arriving  at  Mechi’s  I broke  out 
crying  and  sobbing  through  sheer  weakness. 

On  my  arrival  the  people,  although  they  were  under  direct 
Mission  influence,  showed,  strange  to  say,  a remarkably  changed 
attitude.  The  welcome  was  not  so  effusive,  nor  did  they  crowd 
round  as  before.  They  appeared  shy  and  frightened,  although 
not  so  much  as  they  afterwards  became.  The  fact  of  the  matter 
was  the  people  had  had  time  to  think,  and  reports  had  been 
circulated  and  had  reached  them  that  I had  actually  died,  but 
that  in  some  mysterious  way  I had  been  resuscitated.  This  was 
a possibility  of  which  they  had  no  precedent,  and  could  only  be 
accounted  for  in  their  minds  from  the  fact  that  I belonged  to  a 
class  to  which  they  attributed  abnormal  powers,  and  with  whom 
some  at  least  associated  the  Imlah  tradition  previously  alluded 
to.  This  tradition  had  been  first  communicated  to  me  by  Poit 
himself.  But  more  than  this,  the  doubt  had  arisen  as  to  whether 
the  being  inhabiting  my  body  was  really  mine  or  that  of  another. 
Many  for  a time  doubted  my  real  identity,  and  attributed  the 
marvellous  way  in  which,  in  my  critical  condition,  I had  managed 
to  cover  the  sixty  miles  between  the  scene  of  the  attack  and 
their  village,  to  the  probability  that  the  soul  animating  my 
body  was  other  than  human. 

I noticed  that  the  Chief,  Mechi,  and  some  of  his  men  retired 
to  a distance  under  a tree.  After  a time  he  came  near,  and 
informed  me  that  they  had  decided  to  destroy  Poit.  They  wei*e 
urged  not  to  do  so,  but  the  Indians  said  something  about  the 
throwing  of  the  stone ; and  what  this  custom  is  I still  do  not 
know. 


2G4 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


In  the  evening  I managed  to  accomplish  a three  hours’ journey 
on  the  road,  and  slept  that  night  at  the  village  of  “ The  Father 
of  Cats,”  and  the  next  day — December  29 — late  in  the  after- 
noon, I succeeded  in  reaching  Waikthlatingmangyalwa,  the 
Mission  station,  having  in  eight  days  covered  one  hundred  and 
ten  miles  from  the  scene  of  Poit’s  attack. 

As  to  the  events  of  this  and  the  next  six  weeks,  being  in  too 
exhausted  a condition  to  understand  what  happened  before  and 
after  my  arrival  at  the  station,  and  also  at  the  time  being  pur- 
posely kept  in  the  dark  as  to  the  attitude  of  the  natives,  I must 
depend  on  what  I was  told  afterwards  by  members  of  the  staff. 

It  seems  that  when  the  messenger  brought  in  the  news  from 
the  west,  my  young  friend  Philip  (Keamapsithyo)  and  his 
brother,  the  troublesome  witch-doctor  Manuel,  immediately 
procured  two  horses.  Although  it  was  late  at  night,  and  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  animals  were  in  poor  condition,  yet 
they  trusted  to  being  able  to  cover  at  least  part  of  the  journey 
with  them.  They  had  little  hope  of  finding  me  alive,  but  made 
a start  with  all  haste,  both  being  exceedingly  angry  and  fully 
bent  on  killing  Poit.  It  seems  that  everywhere  on  the  way  they 
found  their  people  greatly  incensed  at  the  crime  that  had  been 
committed. 

It  was  on  Christmas  Day,  the  hottest  day  of  the  year,  that 
they  found  me  as  already  described,  and  I was  afterwards  told 
that  the  thermometer  on  that  day  registered  110°  Fahrenheit 
in  the  shade.1 

On  my  arrival  at  the  station  I am  told  that  the  people  burst 
into  tears,  and  that  a hush  fell  upon  the  whole  village.  I quote 
the  words  Hunt  wrote  in  a letter  to  headquarters:  “For  some 
days  the  people  were  very  quiet,  and  would  come  and  inquire 
in  an  awestruck  manner  about  his  health,  their  eyes  glistening 
with  moisture.  There  was  no  laughing  or  shouting,  and  even  at 
night,  when  they  must  have  been  greatly  troubled  by  dreams, 
they  refrained  from  exorcism  with  chant  and  rattle.  They 

1 The  Mission,  as  the  authorized  agent  of  the  Argentine  Government 
Observatory  at  Cordoba,  is  paid  for  its  services  and  supplied  with  the 
instruments  direct  from  the  Observatory. 

265 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


searched  in  the  forest  for  honey  for  him,  and  were  willing  to  do 
anything  to  help.  Still,  there  was  a something  we  could  not 
account  for.  We  heard  reports  from  one  visitor  and  another. 
It  was  evident  that  Grubb  was  regarded  with  superstition,  as 
one  that  had  risen  from  the  dead.” 

It  was  feared  that  a possible  rising  might  take  place,  the 
whole  body  of  people,  as  far  as  the  missionaries  could  see,  being 
in  an  excitable  and  strange  condition.  My  companions  felt  sure 
that  in  a short  time  a strong  opinion  would  be  formed,  either 
against  us,  or  for  us  and  our  religion.  It  appears,  however,  that 
their  fears  of  impending  trouble  were  groundless,  and  that,  on 
the  contrary,  the  Indians  were  entirely  with  us. 

But  as  I grew  stronger,  and  was  able  to  form  a clearer  view 
of  the  general  situation,  I had  ample  and  detailed  proof  of  the 
superstitious  attitude  of  the  people  towards  me,  and  their  un- 
certainty as  to  my  identity.  I was  sitting  one  day,  to  quote  an 
instance,  resting  in  a deck-chair  in  the  shade,  and  as  the  position 
of  the  sun  changed,  it  was  necessary  for  me  to  move  farther 
into  the  shade.  I was  far  too  weak  to  carry  the  chair  myself, 
although  strong  enough  to  raise  myself  up  and  crawl  a few 
paces,  so  I beckoned  to  a girl — Pinsetawa-apkyitkya — to  come 
and  move  the  chair  for  me.  She  had  known  me  for  many  years, 
and  was,  moreover,  somewhat  of  a pet  of  mine,  yet  she  ap- 
proached with  evident  caution,  and,  keeping  at  a respectful 
distance  from  me,  she  caught  hold  of  the  chair,  placed  it 
hurriedly  in  the  shade,  and  then,  with  an  unmistakable  look  of 
fear,  ran  off  to  the  village. 

On  another  occasion  a man  to  whom  I was  well  known 
inquired,  at  a safe  distance,  after  my  health.  He  then  said : 
“ What  is  your  name  ?”  “ Yiphenabanyetik,  of  course,”  I 

replied.  But  he,  with  an  incredulous  look,  said ; “ I know  it 
was  Yiphenabanyetik  ; but  who  are  you  now  ?” 

The  people  seemed  assured  of  the  identity  of  my  body,  but 
the  puzzle  to  them  was,  who  was  inside  ? 

One  day,  when  sitting  in  the  same  spot  in  the  shade,  I saw 
a party  of  Kisapang  approaching.  They  had  arrived  in  the 
village  on  a visit  of  courtesy  to  me,  and  were  now  being  formally 

266 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


conducted  into  my  presence  by  Esoabyabam,  one  of  the  Lenguas, 
who  led  them  to  within  about  twelve  paces  of  me.  Waving  his 
hand  in  my  direction,  he  turned  to  the  Kisapang,  and  intro- 
duced me  by  saying  in  a very  solemn  voice  : “ There  sits  the 
body  of  Yiphenabanyetik.11  My  visitors  respectfully  stood  at  a 
safe  distance,  and,  after  conversing  in  whispers  for  a few  minutes, 
retired,  evidently  glad  to  leave  my  uncanny  presence. 

These  incidents  afford  evidence  that  the  Indians  believed  I 
had  actually  died,  but  doubted  whether  or  not  I was  the  living 
embodiment  of  my  former  self.  Some  years  after,  the  Chief, 
Mechi,  actually  assured  one  of  us  that  although  he  knew  I was 
still  the  same  Yiphenabanyetik,  nevertheless  he  was  convinced 
that  I had  died.  It  was  this  very  idea  of  the  resuscitation  of 
my  body,  or  at  least  of  my  miraculous  preservation,  that  gave 
the  first  real  impetus  to  the  acceptance  of  the  Gospel. 

During  the  subsequent  weeks,  and  up  to  the  middle  of 
February,  I remained  at  the  station,  and  made  slow  progress 
towards  recovery.  The  only  set-back  I experienced  was  shortly 
after  my  arrival,  when  lying  asleep  in  my  hut.  A tame  tiger- 
cat  had  also  gone  to  sleep  on  one  of  the  beams  overhead.  What 
really  happened  to  it  I do  not  know.  At  any  rate,  it  lost  its 
balance  and  fell  down  from  the  beam,  unfortunately  right  on 
my  chest,  and  I woke  up  with  a great  fright,  to  find  it  spitting 
viciously  in  my  face.  In  my  weak  and  nervous  condition  I 
sustained  a great  shock,  and  the  cat  was  made  to  pay  the  penalty 
of  death  for  its  unintentional  fall,  the  owner  being  afraid  it 
might  again  annoy  me. 

Fearing  that  complications  might  set  in,  I was  advised  to 
seek  medical  treatment.  I had  been  suffering  much  from  a 
certain  irritation,  and  from  peculiar  watery  bladders  breaking 
out  all  over  my  body,  which  may  have  been  caused  by  some 
poisonous  substance  on  the  arrow,  but  this  I could  not  be  sure 
of,  as  it  is  an  open  question  whether  or  not  Poit  poisoned  the 
arrow  with  which  he  shot  me. 

The  nearest  medical  aid  was  nearly  four  hundred  miles  away, 
at  Asuncion,  whither  I was  taken  in  February  to  consult 
Dr.  William  Stewart,  formerly  Surgeon-General  of  the  Para- 

267 


IN  DANGER  OF  BURIAL  ALIVE 


guayan  Army  during  the  war  of  1865-70.  He  considered  it 
necessary  that  I should  go  into  the  British  Hospital  at  Buenos 
Ayres,  which  meant  another  journey  of  some  nine  hundi’ed  miles 
down  river.  There  I was  operated  upon  by  Dr.  O’Connor, 
surgeon  of  the  British  Hospital,  and  was  frequently  visited  by 
Bishop  Stirling,  of  the  Falkland  Isles.  After  recuperating  in 
the  hills  of  Cordoba,  where  I was  attended  by  Dr.  Schmidt,  I 
felt  sufficiently  recovered  to  return  to  the  Chaco,  which  I did  in 
June. 

I received  a warm  welcome,  but  many  of  the  Indians  were 
still  sceptical  of  me ; some  even  touched  me  to  see  if  I was 
really  flesh  and  blood.  Shortly  after  my  return  several  natives 
expressed  a definite  desire  to  become  Christians.  There  was  no 
doubt  that  the  whole  tribe  had  been  strongly  affected,  and  that 
the  action  of  Poit  had  directly  paved  the  way  to  the  acceptance 
of  the  Gospel.  Although  we  move  in  such  matters  as  the 
offering  of  natives  for  baptism  with  the  greatest  care,  yet  the 
sincerity  and  earnestness  of  two,  Keamapsithyo  and  another, 
were  so  genuine  that  we  felt  thoroughly  justified,  some  fifteen 
months  after,  in  presenting  them.  They  were  baptized  Philip 
and  James  respectively,  in  June,  1899,  by  the  Right  Rev. 
Bishop  Stirling,  of  the  Falkland  Isles,  and  thus  was  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Lengua  Indian  Church. 


LENGUA  DOLL. 

(Knuckle-bone,  wrapped  in  rag.) 


268 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


POITS  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 

There  is  no  record  within  the  memory  of  any  inhabitant  of 
this  region  telling  of  an  Indian  being  slain  by  his  own  tribesmen 
for  the  murder  of  a white  man,  far  less  for  an  attempted  murder. 
Before  the  attempt  on  my  life,  many  foreigners  had  been  killed 
by  Indians  within  the  recollection  of  natives  still  living,  and 
similar  murders  have  occurred  since  ; yet  no  punishment  was 
meted  out  to  the  criminals.  On  the  contrary,  an  Indian  who 
killed  a foreigner  was  looked  upon  by  his  people  as  a hero,  and 
worthy  of  all  respect.  Yet  in  the  face  of  this  record,  Poit  was 
executed  in  a cold-blooded  and  formal  manner  by  his  own 
tribesmen,  and  with  their  unanimous  consent,  for  the  attempted 
murder  of  a white  man,  who  without  doubt  was  regarded  with 
suspicion  and  dislike  by  many. 

That  Poit  had  to  die  the  death  of  a murderer  seems  to 
have  been  their  general  verdict.  Exactly  by  what  means  and 
methods  they  managed  so  speedily  to  get  the  opinion  of  the  bulk 
of  the  people,  scattered  as  they  were  over  a large  area,  with  only 
scanty  communications,  I am  not  in  a position  to  judge.  But 
one  thing  is  quite  clear,  that  the  Indians  far  and  wide  were 
evidently  unanimous,  as  is  proved  by  the  following  facts. 

Firstly,  the  Indians  never  take  a very  important  step,  especi- 
ally such  an  unusual  one  as  this,  without  feeling  sure  that 
public  opinion  is  at  their  back.  For  one  or  two  villages  to  have 
carried  out  this  execution  of  their  own  accord,  without  the 
general  approval  of  their  countrymen,  would  have  resulted  in 
serious  complications  to  them. 

Secondly,  the  whole  incident  was  so  closely  interwoven  with 

269 


POIT’S  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 

their  superstitious  and  religious  beliefs  that  the  witch-doctors 
must  have  been  consulted  about  it. 

Thirdly,  there  is  the  fact  that  before  my  departure  for 
medical  treatment  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  after  my  return, 
natives  from  all  parts  came  in  to  sympathize  with  and  to 
congratulate  me. 

Fourthly,  the  fact  that  our  teaching  was  afterwards  welcomed 
in  a degree  which  it  had  never  been  before,  and  that  our 
influence  over  the  people  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds.  All 
this  seems  to  point  to  unanimity  in  the  condemnation  and 
execution  of  Poit,  which  was  carried  out  entirely  without  my 
knowledge  or  that  of  any  of  the  staff ; in  fact,  I was  not  told 
of  it  for  some  weeks  after,  lest  it  should  upset  me. 

When  the  news,  both  of  the  attempted  murder  and  of  the 
execution  of  the  criminal  reached  Paraguay  proper,  it  caused 
great  surprise  and  evoked  much  comment,  because  the  people 
there  had  many  opportunities  of  forming  an  opinion  upon  the 
attitude  of  Indians  to  foreigners ; and  so  firm  was  the  belief 
that  an  Indian  would  never  take  the  part  of  a white  man 
against  his  own  people  that  for  some  years  many  doubted  that 
Poit’s  execution  had  really  taken  place.  Even  the  Mission 
party,  who  thoroughly  understood  the  Indian  character,  would 
not  for  some  time  accept  the  statement  of  the  Lenguas.  It  was 
not  until  the  whole  matter  had  been  thoroughly  sifted,  carefully 
investigated  and  demonstrated,  that  they  would  believe  it,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Indians  produced  at  the  station,  and 
handed  to  the  missionaries,  the  actual  weapons  with  which  they 
had  killed  Poit,  and  pointed  out  the  place  of  execution. 

For  the  account  of  the  manner  in  which  he  was  done  to  death 
I must  depend  entirely  on  the  statement  of  the  Indians. 
According  to  them,  Poit,  after  his  flight  from  the  village  upon 
encountering  the  bearer  of  my  message  to  the  station,  made  for 
the  woods.  He  evidently  became  to  some  extent  distraught. 
It  is  reported  that  when  he  killed  an  animal  for  his  food,  he 
tore  it  to  pieces  and  devoured  it  raw.  This  no  sane  Indian  ever 
does,  but  it  is  a peculiarity  of  native  madness.  When  we  con- 
sider the  dread  that  Indians  have  of  living  alone,  through  their 

270 


POIT’S  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 

particular  fear  of  the  spirits  of  the  forest,  and  the  state  of  terror 
he  must  have  been  in  on  account  of  his  deed,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  he  became  mad,  at  any  rate  for  the  time  being. 

Not  having  waited  to  hear  what  the  messenger  had  to  say,  he 
could  not  have  known  the  course  of  events  subsequent  to  the 
time  when  he  shot  me.  He  could  only  have  assumed  that  I had 
been  found,  and  to  some  extent  had  communicated  with  his 
people ; but  the  likelihood  of  encountering  my  vengeful  spirit, 
the  haunted  conscience  of  the  murderer,  and  the  constant  fear 
of  being  pursued  perhaps  by  his  own  people,  must  have  had  a 
tei’rible  effect  upon  him,  and  his  life  in  the  woods  for  the 
fourteen  days  or  so  before  the  people  found  him  is  horrible  to 
contemplate. 

How  and  where  they  caught  him  I know  not.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  he  was  brought  to  a place  where  a feast  was  being 
held,  to  the  south-west  of  Mechi’s  village.  It  transpired  that 
when  accused  of  the  crime  he  did  not  deny  it,  but  pleaded, 
“ You  surely  will  not  kill  me,  since  I am  one  of  your  own 
people  ?”  He  was  told  that  he  knew  they  all  considered  me  as 
one  of  their  own  people,  a Chief,  and  one  who  was  much  loved 
by  many.  But  at  this  he  appears  to  have  remonstrated,  saying 
that  I was  a comparative  stranger,  and  had  only  recently  come 
to  their  country,  while  he  was  an  Indian,  a near  relative  of 
theirs,  and  had  played  with  them  as  a child.  He  did  not  want 
to  die,  he  said,  for  he  was  young.  Having  heard  that  I was  not 
really  dead,  he  made  a strong  defence  of  that,  but  was  simply 
told  that  it  was  not  his  fault,  and  that  he  had  left  me  for  dead. 
Besides,  they  were  not  quite  sure  whether  I was  actually  dead  or 
not,  although  they  had  seen  me,  and  knew  that  I had  arrived 
at  the  station. 

When  they  had  tried  him  in  this  manner,  and  had  decided 
that  he  must  die,  a pyre  was  prepared  near  to  him.  They  then 
gave  him  an  intoxicating  drink — probably  beer  mixed  with  the 
seed  of  a grass  which  acts  as  a strong  opiate.  A short  time 
was  allowed  to  elapse,  and  then  the  two  chosen  executioners 
drew  near.  One,  a tall  Indian  named  Kilpaisiamakselyakye, 
smote  him  several  times  on  the  head  with  a machete  (a  long 

271 


POIT’S  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 


cleaver  knife),  while  the  other  stabbed  him  repeatedly  in  the 
abdomen.  His  body  was  then  placed  upon  the  pyre  and  burned 
to  ashes.  When  all  was  consumed,  the  ashes  were  taken  up 
and  scattered  to  the  winds. 

Although  these  particulars  have  been  obtained  solely  from 
the  various  and  not  too  distinct  accounts  furnished  by  the 
Indians,  yet  they  all  agree  on  the  main  points,  and  the  whole 
proceedings  tally  with  the  customary  rites  attendant  on  the 
execution  of  a murderer. 

They  had  intended  killing,  not  only  Poit,  but  in  this  case  his 
family  also  ; and  the  successful  efforts  we  exerted  to  save  the 
lives  of  his  near  connections,  as  well  as  our  attempts  on  his  own 
behalf,  unavailing  though  they  proved,  made  a very  strong 
impression  on  the  Indian  mind.  But  what  surprised  them  most 
was  that  we  made  no  attempt  whatever  to  call  in  the  authorities 
in  Paraguay  to  interfere  in  the  matter.  This  abstention  from 
any  kind  of  vengeance,  and  refusal  even  to  receive  the  com- 
pensation offered  for  the  injury  done,  convinced  the  Indians  of 
our  disinterested  and  genuine  friendship  for  them.  Many  of 
them,  at  least,  expected  that  the  Mission  party  would  leave 
their  country  in  disgust,  and  would  never  incur  the  risk  of 
another  venture ; but  the  fact  that  I returned  so  shortly  after- 
wards to  their  country — albeit  against  the  best  advice — demon- 
strated to  them  that  we  were  void  of  fear,  were  by  no  means 
discouraged,  and  that  we  intended  at  all  costs  to  prosecute  our 
Mission.  This  conviction  encouraged  those  who  were  inclined 
to  adopt  our  teaching,  and  greatly  disconcerted  those  who 
feared  lest  their  ancient  customs  should  be  interfered  with  by 
our  influence,  because  they  at  last  saw  that  we  were  evidently 
determined  not  to  yield  until  we  had  achieved  our  object. 

Instead  of  procuring  more  arms,  and  adopting  other  pre- 
cautions for  our  safety,  we  quietly  observed  our  ordinary 
routine,  and  the  Indians  thus  appreciated  the  fact  that  we  still 
regarded  them  as  our  trusted  friends. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that,  prior  to  this  event,  we  had 
imparted  to  the  Indians  a considerable  amount  of  Christian 
instruction.  Being  in  reality  very  little  different  from  our- 

272 


POIT’S  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 

selves,  although  in  outward  appearance  wild  and  strange,  they, 
in  common  with  the  rest  of  mankind,  are  not  satisfied  with 
mere  religious  theory,  but  demand  practical  proof  of  its  reality  ; 
or,  in  the  words  of  Scripture,  they  make  the  demand  : “ Show 
me  thy  faith  by  thy  works.”  We  had  endeavoured  from  the 
very  beginning  of  our  Mission  to  act  up  to  the  Christian  life 
rather  than  merely  to  enjoin  it ; and  the  circumstances  con- 
nected with  this  event  in  the  Mission’s  history  seemed,  as  it 
were,  to  serve  as  the  keystone  to  the  arch,  and  to  enable  the 
remaining  part  of  the  fabric  to  be  built  up.  This  incident  also 
caused  a deep  sensation  amongst  the  surrounding  tribes,  and  the 
account  of  it  spread  far  and  wide  ; thus  it  served  to  open  new 
districts  to  our  influence,  and  attracted  many  from  remote  parts 
to  visit  our  station,  where  we  were  in  a position  to  deal  with 
them  with  more  advantage. 

Speaking  generally,  it  had  two  direct  and  important  results. 
Firstly,  it  proved  that  the  Mission  party  had  been  accepted  by 
the  Indians  as  different  from  any  other  foreigners  ; in  other 
words,  that  we  had  been  received  as  a part  of  their  own  people, 
and  thus  it  broke  down  one  great  barrier  to  the  acceptance  of 
our  teaching.  And,  secondly,  it  opened  out  to  us  a wide  field 
of  knowledge  concerning  their  religion,  customs,  and  laws,  as 
well  as  a deeper  insight  than  we  had  ever  had  before  into  their 
inner  character,  which  is  so  strikingly  portrayed  in  Poit’s 
conduct,  and  in  his  motives  for  perpetrating  such  a crime. 
The  whole  affair  was  the  result  of  superstition.  That  Poit  was 
unprincipled  and  cold-blooded  there  is  no  gainsaying,  but  it 
somewhat  mitigates  the  enormity  of  his  crime  when  we  realize 
that  he  was  led  to  commit  it  through  being  overpowered  by  his 
ancestral  belief. 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  the  more  clearly  grasp  Poit’s 
motives,  and  the  inspiration  which  impelled  him  to  such  a deed, 
I shall  sum  up  the  whole  matter  in  consecutive  form,  for  from 
beginning  to  end  it  is  an  example  of  the  closely-reasoning  mind 
of  the  Indian. 

Poit  had  been  left  in  charge  of  property  belonging  to 
me,  but  he  did  not  understand  that  it  was  property  common 

273 


s 


POIT’S  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 

to  our  party.  To  him  it  was  a private  matter  between  us 
both. 

Several  Englishmen  had  been  connected  with  the  Mission, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  before  this  event,  and  had  left  the 
country,  never  to  return.  Up  to  this  time  no  furlough  had 
been  granted  by  the  society,  consequently  the  Indians  had  no 
idea  of  any  one  of  us  leaving  for  a protracted  period  and  then 
returning  to  carry  on  our  work.  This  happened  to  have  been 
my  first  furlough  since  I left  England  early  in  1886,  and  the 
Indians  had  come  to  regard  me  as  a permanency  in  their 
country,  looking  upon  me  as  a Chief,  not  in  title,  but  in  power. 
That  I should  leave  the  country  and  remain  away  for  an  indefi- 
nite time  was  to  them  conclusive  proof  that  I had  either  tired 
of  their  country  or  become  homesick  for  my  own ; many  there- 
fore assumed  that  it  was  very  improbable  that  I should  ever 
return. 

Poit  certainly  never  expected  me  to  come  back,  and  the 
pleasure  and  influence  over  his  people  that  he  would  gain  by 
claiming  my  wealth  placed  in  his  charge  doubtless  encouraged 
him  to  form  this  opinion.  At  any  rate,  he  went  so  far  as 
to  kill  some  of  the  cows  in  his  charge,  and  to  dispose  of  some 
of  the  goods  committed  to  his  care,  evidently  with  a view  of 
impressing  his  people  and  thereby  of  obtaining  the  position  of 
a Chief  among  them. 

My  arrival  from  furlough  naturally  filled  him  with  dismay. 
He  knew  he  would  have  to  give  an  account  of  his  stewardship, 
and  was  at  his  wits’  end  to  know  how  to  do  it.  One  sin  leads  to 
another,  and  he  was  eventually  proved  to  be  the  thief  who  had 
stolen  the  Indian  money  from  the  Mission  store  and  Professor 
Graham  Kerr’s  gun.  It  is  also  suspected  that  he  stole  various 
things  from  his  own  people.  These  thefts  were  committed 
undoubtedly  in  order  that  he  might  balance  his  accounts,  and 
because  he  preferred  to  run  the  risk  of  detection  in  theft  rather 
than  that  of  being  brought  to  task  by  me. 

Finding  his  efforts  to  square  his  accounts  futile,  he  became 
filled  with  still  greater  anxiety  and  fear,  and  accordingly  it  is 
not  difficult  to  conjecture  to  what  an  extent  he  was  disturbed 

274 


POIT’S  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 


by  dreams  bearing  on  the  subject,  and  to  understand  that  they 
prompted  him  to  take  the  steps  he  did. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Indian  has  implicit  belief 
in  dreams,  and  allows  them  to  control  his  actions.  Poit,  accord- 
ing to  Indian  accounts,  was  greatly  impressed  by  a dream  which 
he  had  related  to  some  Indians  many  weeks  before  he  attempted 
my  life,  the  gist  of  which  was  that  I met  him  in  an  open  space 
in  a forest , accused  him  of  misappropriating  my  property,  and 
with  a gun  shot  him.  This  dream  he  took  as  a clear  warning  of 
what  would  happen,  and  from  the  Indian  point  of  view,  if  he 
could  not  otherwise  avoid  the  catastrophe,  he  had  perforce  to 
endeavour  to  turn  the  tables  upon  me,  and  as  far  as  possible 
deal  with  me  as  he  dreamt  I dealt  with  him. 

An  Indian  must  never  use,  for  any  other  purpose,  a weapon 
employed  in  certain  rites  connected  with  witchcraft,  or  in  taking 
the  life  of  a man.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  he  stole  the  gun 
referred  to.  He  could  easily  have  borrowed  one  from  his  own 
people,  and  I am  almost  certain  that  at  that  time  he  possessed 
one  of  his  own.  But  he  certainly  would  not  utilize  his  for  such 
a purpose,  as  it  would  have  debarred  him  from  using  it  again, 
and  if  he  had  borrowed  one  from  a fellow  Indian,  he  would  have 
had  to  return  it.  But,  if  the  lender  had  discovered  for  what 
purpose  it  had  been  borrowed,  the  gun  would  have  been  useless, 
and  therefore  he  would  have  had  to  make  it  good.  With  regard 
to  the  Professor’s  gun,  he  evidently  thought  otherwise.  In  the 
Indian’s  eyes  he  was  a man  of  great  wealth,  and  was  known  to 
have  brought  it  into  the  country  solely  in  order  to  reward  some 
Indian  who  could  collect  valuable  specimens  for  his  scientific 
work.  Poit  therefore  must  have  thought  that  he  was  best 
able  to  put  up  with  the  loss. 

Such  a hue  and  cry  was  raised  over  the  loss  of  the  gun  that 
Poit  found  it  expedient  to  abandon  it.  Had  it  been  found  in 
his  possession,  we  should  have  been  convinced  of  the  truth  of 
the  rumours  that  he  had  misused  my  property.  His  object  was 
to  impress  me  with  a sense  of  his  unaltei'ed  friendship  and 
fidelity,  so  that  he  might  lure  me  unwittingly  to  the  doom, 
which  he  considered  was  my  j ust  due,  for  it  had  been  revealed 

275 


POIT’S  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 


to  him  in  the  dream  that  I would  assuredly  take  his  life.  But 
he  knew  that  he  would  suffer  when  once  I became  suspicious  of 
him,  and  that  I should  escape.  He  accordingly  placed  the  gun 
in  a spot  where  any  Indian  could  find  it  in  his  search  for  game, 
as  afterwards  really  happened. 

Had  the  carriers  with  whom  I started  on  the  trip  remained 
with  me,  he  could  not  have  taken  my  life.  Evidently,  as 
subsequent  events  prove,  he  had  no  fear  of  his  own  people 
wreaking  vengeance  upon  him  if  he  did  kill  me,  but  he  was  wise 
enough  to  know  that  a secret  is  best  kept  by  one  person, 
and  that,  if  imparted  to  more,  it  was  liable  to  leak  out.  My 
friends  would  then  discover  all,  and  he  knew  not  what  punish- 
ment might  follow.  It  was  therefore  necessary  to  separate 
me  from  these  carriers,  as  well  as  from  those  that  I obtained 
later. 

He  also  had  implicit  faith  in  the  potency  of  the  remedies 
which  I usually  carried  with  me,  and  for  this  reason  he  hid  by 
the  roadside  my  few  medical  stores.  Had  I had  these  with  me 
at  the  time  when  he  desired  to  attack  me,  he  could  not  tell  what 
power  I might  have  derived  from  them. 

At  the  village  where  we  spent  the  last  night  together  he 
exchanged  his  wooden-headed  arrows  for  iron  ones,  as  the  reader 
will  remember.  I have  been  given  to  understand  that,  accord- 
ing to  Indian  superstition,  if  you  cannot  procure  the  proper 
article,  which  in  the  dream  was  a gun,  you  must  get  the 
nearest  thing  approaching  to  it,  which  in  this  case  was  an  iron- 
headed arrow. 

His  story  of  the  jaguar  having  attacked  me  was  evidently 
carefully  thought  out  beforehand.  In  selecting  his  road  that 
morning,  he  purposely  lured  me  to  a similar  place  to  that  in 
which  he  had  met  me  in  his  dream.  It  had,  moreover,  the 
great  advantage  of  being  a jaguar  quarter,  and  a most  unlikely 
spot  to  be  visited  by  any  wandering  Indian.  Therefore  his 
made-up  story  could  not  have  been  better  calculated  for  his 
purpose.  If  I had  been  attacked  by  the  jaguar,  and  he  had 
shot  at  it  in  my  defence,  and  I had  been  killed,  as  he  alleged,  it 
is  quite  clear  to  anyone  who  knows  the  conditions  of  that 

276 


POITS  DEFENCE  AND  FATE 


country  that,  in  the  course  of  a few  days,  the  birds  and  beasts 
of  prey  would  have  left  nothing  but  bones. 

Poit,  carefully  avoiding  the  neighbouring  villages,  pressed  on 
towards  the  Mission  station  with  the  assumed  and  laudable 
intention  of  imparting  the  sad  tidings  to  my  friends.  This  was 
calculated  to  cause  a delay  of  several  days  before  any  search 
could  be  made,  because  the  carrying  of  news  by  one  man  would 
be  a slower  process  than  by  relays.  If  a search  had  been  made 
and  my  remains  found,  everything  would  have  helped  to  corrob- 
orate Poit’s  statement.  Footprints  of  animals  would  have 
been  numerous  in  such  a place,  and  the  arrow  would  have  been 
found  near  my  skeleton. 

Poit,  by  expressing  great  grief  at  my  death,  would  have 
disarmed  suspicion,  and  my  companions  would  have  been  so 
upset  at  the  tragedy  that  further  inquiry  into  the  rumours 
connected  with  him  would  have  probably  ceased. 

The  only  flaw  in  the  whole  consecutive  course  of  his  cleverly- 
thought-out  and  cunning  strategem  was  that  he  shot  at  me  and 
then  fled.  Why  did  he  not  stay  to  make  sure  of  his  victim  ? I 
believe  that  the  Indian  custom  is  that  when  killing  a man  they 
complete  the  deed  by  battering  the  head  with  clubs.  An 
Indian  report  reached  me  that  Poit  was  frightened  by  some- 
thing at  the  time,  and  that  he  was  not  only  overcome  with 
horror  at  the  deed  he  had  committed,  but  that  some  super- 
natural fear  impelled  him  to  instant  flight.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  related  this  at  the  time  of  his  execution.  Whatever  was 
the  cause,  it  still  remains  a strange  fact  that  he  did  not  make 
perfectly  sure  of  my  death  before  leaving  me,  after  all  his  careful 
preparations  to  compass  it. 


277 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 


FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  THE  WITCH-DOCTORS 

During  the  three  years  subsequent  to  Poit’s  death,  two  forces 
were  at  work  struggling  for  the  mastery.  The  witch-doctors 
saw  that  our  teaching  was  getting  a firm  hold  of  one  section  of 
the  people,  and  that  Christianity  threatened  to  rob  them  of 
their  influence,  and  to  deprive  them  of  the  gains  derived  from 
their  craft.  We  were  still  living  in  a heathen  village,  and  the 
rule  of  heathenism  was  as  yet  the  established  power  in  the  land, 
yet  we  had  made  such  progress  that  we  considered  we  could  no 
longer  deny  baptism  to  three  well-approved  and  thoroughly 
tested  young  men.  They  were  baptized  on  October  14, 
1900,  at  Waikthlatingmangyalwa,  by  the  Rev.  E.  P.  Cache- 
maille,  the  clerical  secretary  of  the  South  American  Missionary 
Society,  who  was  then  visiting  our  stations. 

This  advance  on  our  part,  together  with  the  knowledge  that 
several  other  Lenguas  were  candidates  for  baptism,  greatly 
incensed  the  heathen  party,  and  especially  the  witch-doctors. 
Their  auger,  too,  was  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  a few  days 
previously  the  Chief  of  the  station  had  died  of  snake-bite,  and 
they  held  us  responsible  for  his  death.  He  had  been  attended 
by  Dr.  Lindsay,  and  had  succumbed,  not  through  the  doctor’s 
want  of  skill,  but  from  his  own  obstinacy  and  that  of  his 
friends. 

The  witch-doctors  had  evidently  resolved  to  take  the  first 
favourable  opportunity  to  attempt  to  end  the  progress  of 
Christianity  once  and  for  all.  They  waited  until  some  members 
of  the  staff,  including  myself,  and  some  of  our  staunchest  Indian 

278 


FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 

adherents,  had  left  the  station  to  escort  Mr.  Cachemaille  to 
Paraguay  on  his  return  after  the  baptisms. 

We  had  no  sooner  started  than  signs  of  unrest  were  noticed, 
but  as  I was  absent,  I will  quote  Hunt’s  words  describing  the 
rebellion,  in  his  report  to  headquarters  : 

“ Soon  after  they  left,  the  boy  Andrew  complained  of  a pain 
in  his  right  groin,  but  said  he  did  not  feel  ‘ sick  inside.’  Then 
John  became  ill  also,  but  in  two  days  was  much  better,  and  able 
to  go  on  with  his  work.  The  third  boy,  Thomas,  had  been  very 
ill  before  his  baptism.  We  had  our  suspicions  aroused,  thinking, 
not  unnaturally,  that  some  of  the  witch-doctors  had  been  giving 
these  three  recently  baptized  lads  something  to  make  them  ill. 

“Andrew  grew  worse;  he  could  scarcely  walk,  staggering  as 
he  went,  and  one  morning  he  fell  to  the  ground  when  attempting 
to  take  a few  steps.  However,  he  was  very  cheerful,  and  even 
asked  for  the  looking-glass  to  arrange  his  head-gear.  It  was 
thought  best  to  remove  him  to  one  of  our  houses,  so  that  we 
might  attend  to  him.  He  had  developed  a high  fever,  and  was 
\ery  seriously  ill. 

“ On  the  previous  day,  a messenger  had  come  in  from  the 
west,  accompanied  by  two  men  from  one  of  the  worst  centres  of 
witchcraft,  one  of  them  being  a kind  of  Chief  of  the  wizards. 
He  had,  when  here  on  a former  occasion,  done  wonderful  things 
with  his  craft,  taking  three  cats  from  a boy’s  stomach,  for  which 
extraordinary  performance  we  gave  him  the  name  of  ‘ The  Father 
of  Cats.’  Some  of  his  friends  from  an  adjacent  village  were  here 
(Waikthlatingmangyalwa)  at  the  time,  and  gave  him  all  the 
news,  especially  the  death  of  the  Chief  from  snake-bite  and  the 
departure  of  the  party  for  the  River  Paraguay.  As  I enter- 
tained the  visitors,  I heard  a full  account  of  the  news. 

“ Most  of  the  best  Indians  were  away  at  the  river,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  boys,  we  were  left  without  supporters. 
Philip  and  his  brother  Manuel,  our  two  strongest  Indian  helpers, 
were  away.  Quite  a number  of  witch-doctors  and  their  assistants 
were  here,  and  could  carry  out  any  evil  design  without  opposi- 
tion from  their  own  people. 

“ Andrew  had  a bad  night  on  the  Saturday,  and  before 

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FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 


service  on  the  Sunday  there  were  mutterings  of  the  coming 
storm.  They  blamed  us  for  keeping  the  lad,  and  quietly  said 
that  they  thought  it  would  be  well  for  him  to  be  taken  to  their 
huts,  to  treat  him  after  their  own  style.  He  had  had  no  sleep, 
and  the  fever  did  not  abate. 

“ As  I was  leaving  for  the  service,  a man  was  coming  in  to 
look  at  the  boy,  but  I checked  him,  and  he  turned  and  came  out 
with  me  with  a decidedly  ugly  look  on  his  face.  As  we  parted 
I spoke  hopefully  of  the  boy’s  recovery,  whereupon  he  glared  at 
me,  saying,  ‘ He  won’t  recover,  he  will  die.  You  are  killing 
him.  You  want  to  kill  all  our  friends,  as  you  killed  the  old 
Chief  the  other  day.  He  will  not  get  better.’  He  then  walked 
away  to  the  village. 

“ It  was  my  turn  to  address  the  Lengua  congregation,  and  I 
felt  impelled  to  speak.  I said  that  I had  been  much  hurt  az 
what  I had  heard,  and  I brought  forth  proof  enough  from  the 
past  to  show  that  we  had  been  their  friends.  I also  explained 
again  our  object  in  coming  out  to  them.  The  words  were 
thoroughly  understood,  and  went  home. 

“ A few  minutes  after,  I was  sent  for  to  come  at  once.  I 
found  in  the  sick-room  a formal  deputation  of  ten  bad  characters, 
who  had  come  with  the  intention  of  taking  the  sick  boy  by 
force.  We  suggested  to  them  to  come  outside  and  discuss  the 
matter  away  from  the  sick-room.  They  were  ten  strong  men : 
we  were  four  and  three  boys.  Their  party  consisted  of  the  Wit. 
the  Orator,  the  Chief  Wizard,  the  Pessimist  (as  we  had  nick- 
named them),  and  six  assistants. 

“ I began  by  offering  them  a smoke.  Then  the  Orator  ex- 
plained that  they  wanted  to  take  the  boy  to  the  village.  We 
refused  to  allow  him  to  be  taken,  whereupon  they  turned  nasty. 
They  argued,  first,  that  we  killed  the  old  Chief  by  giving  him 
rice  and  bread  when  he  was  snake-bitten ; secondly,  that  we 
desired  to  kill  this  lad,  and  generally  to  kill  off  their  friends  with 
our  treatment ; thirdly,  that  unless  we  let  the  boy  go,  the  father, 
who  had  been  sent  for,  would  come  with  a big  party,  that  they 
would  be  very  angry,  and  would  make  it  very  unpleasant  for  us, 
practically  hinting  that  we  should  be  in  danger  of  our  lives. 

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FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 

“ Though  we  did  not  expect  personal  violence,  yet  the  situa- 
tion was  by  no  means  pleasant.  I asked  what  they  would  do  if 
they  took  the  boy.  At  this  vacillation  on  our  part  they 
jumped  up  with  fiendish  glee,  and  promised  that  there  should 
be  no  singing  and  no  witchcraft,  but  that  they  only  wished  to 
watch  over  him.  I then  spoke  to  their  Chief,  and  informed  him 
that  he  was  a witch-doctor.  He  denied  it,  but  I reminded  him 
of  the  kittens,  and  that  quieted  him.  I then  went  to  the  two 
Christian  boys,  and  asked  them  what  they  thought.  They  said 
the  witch-doctors  meant  to  perform  the  usual  evil  practices, 
and  advised  that  the  boy  should  remain  where  he  was.  I said 
we  were  few,  and  could  not  possibly  resist  them,  supposing  they 
used  force.  I suggested  that  they  should  bring  up  all  the  boys 
and  friends,  and  very  soon  after  they  came  trooping  up — a good 
round  number,  small  and  sleepy.  Nevertheless,  it  nonplussed 
the  enemy. 

“They  talked,  they  sneered,  they  threatened,  and  the  Wit 
remarked  that  he  had  been  outside  the  church,  and  had  heard 
all  that  I had  said  that  evening.  The  Chief  then  desired  to  see 
the  boy,  and  when  I had  taken  him  in,  he  spoke  to  him,  asking 
if  he  were  all  right  and  if  he  recognized  him,  receiving  a reply 
in  the  affirmative.  The  Chief  then  asked  me  to  pray,  which  I 
did ; whereupon  he  said  : ‘ Now  you  see  I am  not  a witch-doctor ; 
say  you  were  deceiving.’  I replied  that  I would  not  take  back 
the  words  I had  said.  They  went  off  muttering  and  scowling, 
and  in  an  angry  mood,  not  even  wishing  us  good-night. 

“We  expected  and  prepared  for  their  return.  The  boys  kept 
watch  at  the  door,  and  the  other  premises  were  protected,  but 
nothing  occurred  during  the  night. 

“ Early  next  morning  we  sent  off  a messenger  for  Mr.  Grubb, 
Dr.  Lindsay,  and  Philip.  We  still  hoped  that  the  boy  would 
recover,  and  that  the  doctor  would  be  able  to  do  something  for 
him.  We  wanted  Philip  to  find  out  exactly  the  mood  of  the 
people,  and  we  wished  Mr.  Grubb  to  be  here  in  case  of  an 
uproar,  which  seemed  very  probable.  The  despatching  of  that 
messenger  undoubtedly  spoiled  any  well-laid  plans.  They  now 
turned  completely  round,  and  tried  to  get  into  favour  again, 

281 


FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 

and  to  make  out  that  we  were  their  friends.  This  made  us 
more  suspicious  than  ever,  and  we  looked  forward  with  dread  to 
the  coming  night. 

“ In  the  afternoon  the  father  of  the  sick  boy  arrived.  The 
people  met  him,  and  tried  to  persuade  him  to  get  his  son  con- 
veyed to  the  village.  At  first  he  desired  it,  but  when  he  had 
seen  the  boy,  he  only  asked  to  sit  up  with  him.  The  people 
were  angry,  but  the  father  was  deeply  moved  at  the  sight  of 
his  son,  and  remained  with  him.  The  lad  grew  worse,  and  at 
3.30  a.m.  he  breathed  his  last.  The  father  and  other  watchers 
rushed  from  the  room,  being  afraid  of  the  boy’s  spirit.  We 
delayed  the  funeral,  in  the  hope  that  Mr.  Grubb  would  arrive, 
but  at  9 o’clock  the  sad  ceremony  was  performed. 

“ Everything  seemed  to  be  in  a state  of  disquietude  through- 
out the  day.  We  were  completely  unstrung  by  the  loss  of  the 
boy  Andrew,  and  exhausted  with  the  watching.  At  night  ghosts 
were  seen  by  the  people,  portions  of  the  roof  were  thrown  off, 
figures  were  seen  behind  houses,  and  next  day  whispered  con- 
versations were  going  on  in  many  parts  of  the  village.  How 
thankful  we  were  to  see  Mr.  Grubb  and  his  party  arrive  !” 

There  is  no  doubt,  from  what  I have  been  able  to  gather, 
that  the  witch-doctors  had  poisoned  the  recently  baptized  men. 
Paisiam-amaak  (Andrew)  had  evidently  received  the  biggest 
dose,  and  this  poison  may  probably  have  set  up  inflammation. 
The  doctor,  from  what  he  was  told  of  the  symptoms,  considered 
that  it  might  have  been  appendicitis.  The  natives  do  use 
poison,  and  not  long  before  this  a man  had  died  of  poisoning, 
but  whether  by  accident  or  not  I cannot  say.  Some  of  our 
Indian  adherents  informed  me  that  in  their  opinion  the  lads 
had  been  poisoned,  and  it  is  certainly  significant  that  all  three 
should  suffer  at  the  same  time,  and  with  the  same  symptoms, 
while  no  one  else  in  the  village  showed  any  such  signs. 

I can  quite  sympathize  with  the  unpleasant  and,  I must 
confess,  somewhat  dangerous  position  in  which  I found  my 
companions  placed.  The  only  mistake  that  they  seem  to  have 
made  was  in  not  taking  a high  enough  hand  with  the  witch- 
doctors from  the  beginning.  I have  always  found  that  in  deal- 

282 


FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 

ing  with  Indians  it  is  fatal,  in  a crisis,  to  give  way  to  them  in 
the  least.  They  are  masters  of  bluff,  and  can  only  be  overcome 
by  the  irresistible  force  of  stronger  will-power,  or  of  more 
successful  bluff  than  their  own. 

Finding  the  village  in  a very  unsettled  and  still  rebellious 
state,  it  was  necessary  for  us,  with  the  least  possible  delay,  to 
take  prudent  steps  to  get  the  upper  hand.  On  arriving  at  the 
village,  many  of  the  people — among  them  most  of  the  ring- 
leaders of  the  trouble — came  out  with  apparent  pleasure  to 
welcome  me,  but  I absolutely  refused  to  take  any  notice  of 
them.  The  Indian  is  very  proud  and  sensitive,  and  they  resented 
this  act,  as  I intended  they  should.  I then  took  the  first  oppor- 
tunity of  gathering  all  possible  information  from  my  com- 
panions. Once  armed  with  this,  I retired  to  my  room  with  my 
powerful  ally,  Philip.  I instructed  him  to  go  up  to  the  village 
to  his  own  hut,  but  on  no  account  to  show  an  aggressive  atti- 
tude— to  mix  freely  with  the  people,  learn  all  he  could,  and 
then  to  communicate  with  me  privately.  The  result  was  highly 
satisfactory. 

The  first  man  to  be  tackled  was  one  of  the  leading  witch- 
doctors, Pinsetawa,  Philip’s  own  father-in-law.  Philip  had 
somehow  or  other  found  out  that  he  had  been  the  chief  ghost 
referred  to,  and  that  he  had  produced  fear  among  the  ordinary 
people  by  surreptitiously,  during  the  night,  pushing  off  the 
palm-logs  from  the  roof  of  Philip’s  house  with  a long  pole.  I 
therefore  sent  a boy  to  tell  him  that  he  was  wanted.  He  at 
once  came  to  my  room,  and  entered  with  a most  affable  manner. 
I told  him  I had  heard  that  during  the  previous  night  many 
ghosts  had  been  about,  and  also  some  devils.  He  assured  me 
quite  seriously  that  such  had  been  the  case,  and  that  he  and  the 
jJeople  were  very  much  alarmed,  adding  that  they  were  very 
glad  that  I had  returned,  as  they  knew  I was  very  strong,  and 
not  afraid  of  such  visitors.  I admitted  this,  and  said  that  I had 
learnt  that  many  tiles  had  been  knocked  off  the  roof  by  them, 
but  that  I was  particularly  angry  because  they  had  specially 
selected  my  friend  Philip’s  house  for  their  pranks. 

I assured  him  that  I could  not  possibly  allow  the  spirits 

283 


FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 

to  repeat  this  behaviour  another  night,  and,  taking  him  to  one 
of  my  windows,  I showed  him  that  it  commanded  a good  view 
of  Philip’s  house.  I then  pointed  to  my  Winchester  rifle  and 
the  eleven  cartridges  which  it  contained,  and  told  him  that  as 
soon  as  I heard  the  first  palm-tile  fall  I should  fire  straight  in 
that  direction,  to  warn  the  spirits  off.  I then  bade  him  adieu. 
Needless  to  add,  there  was  no  destruction  to  property  that  night. 

The  next  man  to  be  interviewed  was  no  less  a personage  than 
an  old  friend  of  mine,  Cacique  Antonio,  the  Chief  of  a little 
neighbouring  village.  He,  I had  learnt,  had  prowled  about  at 
night,  making  noises  near  the  staff's  quarters,  with  a view  to 
intimidate  them,  and  had  also  been  overheard  saying  that  the 
English  were  “ shaking  in  their  insides,”  that  they  were  not 
strong,  and  that  the  people  need  not  be  afraid  of  them ; also 
that  they  were  few  in  number,  while  the  Indians  were 
many. 

I adopted  a different  tone  with  Antonio,  and  took  care  to 
meet  him  with  a goodly  number  of  Indians  near.  I then  went 
up  to  him  and  shook  hands  with  him  affectionately.  “Antonio,” 
I said,  “ you  are  my  friend  ; you  have  always  been  my  friend  ; 
you  would  not,  I am  sure,  let  anyone  hurt  me.  Now,  the 
witch-doctors  here  ” (some  were  present,  and  I looked  sideways 
at  them)  “ are  very  angry,  and  I am  much  afraid  of  them,  but 
you  will  see  that  they  do  not  hurt  me.  Look  at  my  arms, 
Antonio ; they  are  very  thin,  and  I have  no  muscle,  and  ‘ my 
stomach  is  shaking  with  fear.’  If  any  of  these  men  were  to 
wrestle  with  me,  they  would  put  me  on  the  ground  as  if  I were 
a small  boy.  But  you  will  protect  me,  won’t  you  ?” 

The  witch-doctors  in  question  scowled  darkly,  but  said 
nothing  ; they  understood  the  sarcasm.  Then,  retreating  a few 
steps,  I scanned  him  and  some  of  the  others  up  and  down,  and 
turning  to  the  people,  I laughingly  said,  in  a changed  voice, 
“ Just  look  at  them  ; who  do  you  think  could  possibly  be  afraid 
of  them  ? Why  ” (addressing  the  Orator,  the  worst  character  of 
the  party),  “ you,  my  friend,  are  not  very  far  from  the  grave  ; 
before  long  your  friends  will  be  preparing  it  for  you.”  This 
was  too  much  for  him,  and  he  disappeared.  He  did  not  like 

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FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 


this  remark  coming  from  me  ; I believe  he  thought  there  was 
more  behind  it  than  scarcasm. 

Addressing  “ The  Father  of  Cats,”  I told  him  it  was  notorious 
that  he  was  not  brave,  and  if  he  liked  I could  refer  to  some 
incidents  in  his  previous  history,  and  that  instead  of  talking 
about  what  he  could  do  with  the  English,  he  had  better  go  and 
produce  some  more  kittens.  I then  walked  away. 

Next  day  I interviewed  the  witch-doctor  of  the  village, 
Keamap-apanko-yakye-abayabam,  and  the  Chiefs  son,  both  of 
whom  had  been  absent,  and  had  therefore  not  taken  part  in  the 
disturbance.  They  were  quite  pleased  with  themselves,  and 
assured  me  they  had  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  disturbance. 
“ Oh  yes,”  I said,  “ that  is  quite  true,  but  you  knew  all  about  it, 
and  only  wanted  to  save  yourselves  getting  into  trouble.  You 
profess  to  be  our  people,  and  yet  you  slip  away  and  leave  us 
alone  when  strangers  come  into  your  village  and  make  things 
unpleasant.  You  are  just  like  snakes  slipping  away  through 
the  grass  when  you  feel  a ‘ camp  ’ fire  coming.  You  are  a poor 
specimen  to  be  the  Chief  of  the  village.” 

Shortly  after  the  Orator  came  to  me.  He  had  unfortunately, 
or  fortunately,  inflammation  of  the  eyes  that  day,  and  in  the 
mildest  manner  asked  for  medicine.  I told  him  I knew  nothing 
about  medicine,  and  that  my  companions  were  ignorant,  too, 
and  that  such  medicines  as  we  had  were  bad  remedies,  reminding 
him  how  the  other  day  the  Chief  had  died  under  our  hands. 
“ Why,”  I said,  “ we  are  not  your  friends ; we  only  came  here 
to  kill  your  people.  But  you  are  a witch-doctor ; you  surely 
know  how  to  cure  sore  eyes,  for  you  can  do  wonderful  things ! 
There  are  many  of  you  here ; go  and  ask  your  companions  for 
medicine.”  Later  in  the  day,  however,  his  eyes  were  attended 
to  by  one  of  the  staff. 

That  evening  I called  some  of  the  Indians  together,  and 
decided  on  the  punishment  we  should  inflict  upon  the  disturbers 
of  the  peace.  It  was  determined  that  those  who  were  able  to 
should  give  two  sheep  each  as  compensation  for  the  annoyance 
they  had  caused,  and  those  who  could  not  should  work  two  days 
for  us  with  the  hoe,  not  only  morning  and  evening,  but  also 

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FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 

throughout  the  heat  of  the  day,  without  rest  or  pay.  The 
decision  was  communicated  to  the  culprits,  and  all  agreed  quietly 
and  without  demur.  “ The  Father  of  Cats 11  set  off  the  next  day, 
so  we  understood,  to  bring  in  his  sheep  from  his  village,  but  about 
midday  a messenger  arrived  from  him  with  the  following  com- 
munication for  me  : “ Tell  Yiphenabanyetik  that  he  may  be  a 
great  Chief,  but  that  I also  am  a great  Chief,  and  I refuse  to 
give  him  two  sheep.”  I immediately  despatched  a messenger 
to  say  I was  very  sorry  I had  overlooked  the  fact  that  “ The 
Father  of  Cats  ” was  so  great  a Chief ; that  I could  not  think 
of  asking  him  for  two  sheep,  but  that  so  great  a Chief  must 
bring  three.  Eventually  we  obtained  them.  We  decided  to 
sell  the  sheep  and  to  devote  the  proceeds  to  the  purchase  of  a 
large  lamp  for  the  church. 

The  people  did  not  hear  the  end  of  this  disturbance  for  a 
long  time.  The  Indians  have  long  memories,  and  it  is  quite  a 
common  thing  for  a man,  when  he  wants  some  favour  from  you, 
or  when  you  are  upbraiding  him,  to  recall  all  the  kind  actions 
he  has  done  for  you  for  years  back.  Again,  when  it  suits  their 
purpose,  they  will  bring  up  against  you  anything  they  can 
possibly  recollect  to  your  detriment  since  they  made  your 
acquaintance.  We  have  often  found  it  very  useful  to  adopt 
this  native  custom,  and  for  a long  time  afterwai’ds  we  did 
not  forget  to  remind  them  frequently  of  their  unfriendly  and 
reprehensible  conduct  on  this  occasion. 

We  had  passed  through  a very  important  crisis,  and  realized 
clearly  that,  if  not  the  last,  it  was  one  of  the  great  duels  between 
heathenism  and  Christianity.  Providentially  we  had  got  the 
better  of  them.  But  the  Indian,  when  it  suits  him,  easily 
fox-gets  what  he  does  not  like  to  remember,  and  his  disposition 
is  such  that  he  makes  a sti’ong  effort  to  oblitei-ate  any  unpleasant 
memories  affecting  himself,  and  tides  as  much  as  possible  to 
prevent  them  influencing  his  life. 

We  had,  for  the  time  being,  the  upper  hand  of  the  witch- 
doctors, and  we  wei-e  determined  to  maintain  it  as  far  as  lay  in 
our  power.  We  accordingly  took  every  opportunity  in  private 
conversation  and  public  teaching  to  expose  their  errors.  In 

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FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 

this  we  were  ably  supported  by  the  native  converts  and  those 
who  were  candidates  for  baptism. 

Philip,  when  addressing  the  people  in  church  the  day  on 
which  the  new  lamp  was  hung,  did  not  mince  matters  in  his 
attack  on  witchcraft.  The  gist  of  his  address  was : “ Before 
these  people  came  amongst  us  we  were  in  darkness,  just  as  we 
should  be  in  this  church  were  there  no  lamp  at  all ; but  after 
they  came  we  soon  had  a little  light,  and  we  began  to  under- 
stand some  things,  but  only  a little.  We  are  anxious  to  know 
more  ; we  shall  not  be  satisfied  till  we  know  all.  You  witch- 
doctors, influenced  by  the  evil  spirits,  endeavoured  to  extinguish 
the  little  light  that  we  had.  You  are  as  we  were,  and  the  evil 
spirits  urged  you  on  ; but  the  Chief  of  heaven  is  very  great, 
and  see  what  He  has  done.  We  have  now,  instead  of  a small 
lamp  giving  a dim  light,  a beautiful  and  brilliant  light,  as  is 
seen  in  the  trading-houses  of  the  Paraguayan  town  of  Con- 
cepcion. 

“ Through  obeying  the  devil  you  have  had  to  pay  for  this 
better  light.  You  are  the  devil’s  followers,  we  are  God’s 
followers.  You  have  paid  for  the  light  for  us  to  worship  God 
by,  and  to  make  it  more  easy  for  us  to  teach  you  about  the 
True  Light.  You  witch-doctors  will  no  longer  wield  power  ; in 
fact,  I think  that  there  will  soon  be  no  witch-doctors.  This 
has  not  been  a village  of  God’s  people,  but  now  it  will  be  ; and 
those  who  do  not  agree  with  our  works  had  better  go  and  live 
on  the  other  side  of  the  River  Monte  Lindo.” 

Philip,  although  a Christian,  had  a comparatively  weak  grasp 
of  Christian  principles.  His  face  was  earnestly  set  in  the  right 
direction,  and  he  was  full  of  zeal,  but  he  had  at  this  time  very 
little  idea  of  Christian  liberty.  He  had  somewhat  of  the  spirit 
of  the  early  disciples,  being  filled  with  righteous  indignation 
and  anger,  and  desiring  to  bring  down  the  fire  of  Heaven  upon 
the  stubborn. 

His  address,  however,  had  a very  salutary  effect,  although  we 
could  not  approve  of  the  last  clause,  and  it  was,  furthermore, 
somewhat  prophetic  in  character.  Very  few  years  passed  before 
Waikthlatingmangyalwa  had  become  in  reality  a Christian 

287 


FINAL  STRUGGLE  OF  WITCH-DOCTORS 


village.  Of  the  ringleaders  in  this  rebellion,  many  have  since 
become  sincere  and  earnest  Christians ; and  it  would  be  difficult 
to-day  to  find  an  Indian  within  the  Mission  sphere  of  influence 
so  bold  as  to  admit  that  he  had  anything  whatever  to  do  with 
witchcraft. 

The  Church  in  less  than  ten  years  has  grown  and  developed 
to  an  extent  such  as  Philip,  in  his  most  enthusiastic  moments, 
could  not  have  conceived  possible. 


HATHPANG-LENGUA  ONE-STRINGED  FIDDLE,  WITH  BOW, 

(String-  of  horse-hair ; body  of  palm,  hollowed  out.) 


288 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
’TWIXT  OLD  AND  NEW 


Most  people  look  for  far  too  great  and  rapid  results  from 
Missions  ; in  fact,  there  seems  to  be  a wrong  conception  of  the 
office  of  the  Christian  Church  abroad  at  the  present  day.  Men 
cannot  be  compelled  to  become  Christians ; men  cannot  be 
forced  to  be  good.  The  ordinary  man  is  naturally  sinful,  and 
all  we  can  do  is  to  try  to  influence  him  to  such  an  extent  that 
he  will  “cease  to  do  evil  and  learn  to  do  good.”  We  some- 
times find  heathen  quite  interested  in  and  favourably  inclined 
towards  Christianity  when  it  is  put  before  them,  while  others 
hate  and  strongly  oppose  it. 

A very  common  idea  is  that,  if  missionaries  were  numerous 
enough  and  consecrated  enough,  the  whole  heathen  world  would 
become  Christian.  It  might  become  nominally  so,  but  we  have 
no  reason  to  look  for  genuine  Christianity  among  heathens  in 
any  greater  proportion  than  we  find  it  amongst  ourselves,  highly 
privileged  though  we  have  been. 

The  effect  of  a Mission  among  a heathen  people  is  varied  and 
widespread.  The  teaching  of  the  missionaries  opens  up  a new 
line  of  thought  to  the  natives.  Education,  which  forms  part  of 
the  work  of  most  Missions,  gradually  enlightens  and  widens  the 
view  of  those  who  come  under  its  influence.  They  begin  to 
take  a different  view  of  life,  their  old  fears  and  prejudices  are 
shaken,  they  begin  to  realize  that  they  are  as  other  men,  and 
that  their  former  awe  and  dread  of  the  white  man  was  to  a 
great  extent  unwarranted.  Their  uncultivated  imaginations 
conceived  of  him  as  a powerful  being,  all-knowing,  and  almost 
supernatural,  whereas  in  reality  the  gulf  between  them  was  a 

289  t 


’TWIXT  OLD  AND  NEW 


very  narrow  one.  The  result  of  this  change  of  view  is  that 
the  heathen  becomes  more  venturesome,  more  presuming,  and 
less  respectful  to  the  white  man  ; and  if  during  this  transitory 
period  the  European  fails  to  handle  the  native  wisely,  kindly, 
justly,  and  firmly,  the  consequences  may  prove  disastrous  both 
to  the  coloured  man  and  to  the  white. 

We  all  know  that  sudden  changes  from  one  social  or  religious 
state  to  another  are  almost  invariably  attended  with  evil  con- 
sequences ; but  surely  no  reasoning  man  would  ever  assert  that 
it  is  better  to  keep  a people  in  ignorance  and  slavery  than  to 
allow  them  to  endeavour  to  attain  to  a higher  and  nobler  life, 
simply  because  during  the  transition  period  irregularities  and 
disorders  are  liable  to  result. 

Such  strivings  after  what  is  better,  although  they  may  result 
disastrously  to  some,  are  surely  to  be  encouraged  rather  than 
repressed,  because  that  which  is  aimed  at  is  a step  neai’er  to 
perfection. 

It  is  unfortunate,  although  I do  not  see  how  it  is  to  be  avoided, 
that  during  the  struggle  after  something  better,  whether  it  be 
religious  or  social,  a great  many  people,  while  they  do  not  attain 
to  nor  share  in  the  higher  development,  yet  are  shaken  in  their 
old  beliefs  and  unsettled  in  their  social  condition.  They  are  in 
a worse  state  than  before,  and  are  like  derelict  vessels  abandoned 
by  their  crews,  and  drifting  about  aimlessly,  a danger  to  them- 
selves and  all  others  around  them. 

The  history  of  the  Chaco  Mission,  and  of  its  effect  upon  the 
natives,  illustrates  in  some  measure  the  truth  of  these  remarks. 
The  Indian  was  to  a very  large  extent  governed  and  kept  in 
order  by  the  force  of  customs  and  public  opinion  which  had 
existed  for  generations.  These  customs  were  for  the  most  part 
either  evil,  unpractical,  or  absurd  ; and  their  public  opinion  was 
such  that  it  fettered  and  weakened  rather  than  stimulated  and 
strengthened  them.  The  teaching  and  influence  of  the  Mission 
was  necessarily  such  as  to  impress  the  whole  people  with  a sense 
of  the  weakness  of  their  position.  While  many  have  followed 
the  better  and  wiser  course  which  has  been  shown  them,  the 
greater  number  are  either  halting  dubiously  between  the  two 

290 


’TWIXT  OLD  AND  NEW 


opinions,  or,  having  lost  all  faith  and  respect  for  their  former 
ideas,  have  drifted  into  carelessness,  recklessness,  and  indifference. 

We  were  the  first  white  people  with  whom  they  had  close  and 
intimate  acquaintance.  Our  manner  of  life  among  them  was 
such  as  to  impress  them  with  our  superiority ; they  therefore 
respected  us,  and  yielded  in  great  measure  to  our  authority. 
But  since  the  further  development  of  the  country  has  set  in, 
they  have  unfortunately  come  in  contact  with  many  whose  lives 
are  such  as  to  produce  in  them  a sense  of  contempt  rather  than 
of  respect.  It  is  a rude  shock  to  an  Indian  to  meet  with  one  of 
a race  of  whom  formerly  he  had  only  an  indistinct  idea,  but 
whom,  nevertheless,  he  considered  his  superior,  and  suddenly  to 
find  that  in  moral  life,  courage,  honesty,  and  sense  of  justice,  he 
is  no  better,  but  rather  inferior  to  himself.  And  it  must  be 
clear  to  all  that  the  unavoidable  intercourse  of  the  Indian  with 
such  white  men  is  a greater  obstacle  to  the  work  of  the  missionary 
than  the  opposition  of  heathenism  itself.  The  result  is  that  the 
partially  enlightened  Indian  has  lost  his  fear  of,  and  trust  in 
such  Europeans.  Nevertheless,  having  had  a taste  of  the  greater 
attractions  of  civilization,  he  naturally  seeks  intercourse  with 
foreigners  whose  moral  life  is  more  on  his  own  level,  rather  than 
with  those  at  the  Mission  stations,  where  the  discipline  is  such 
as  to  prove  irksome  to  all  who  do  not  really  value  a purer  and 
higher  life. 

It  is  true  that  the  first  enlightenment  of  the  savage  has  come 
through  his  intercourse  with  us,  but,  finding  our  system  uncon- 
genial to  him,  he  naturally  drifts  to  the  settlements,  where  his 
thirst  for  change  and  variety  may  be  gratified  without  the 
restraining  influence  of  Christianity.  Such  Indians  soon  become 
worse  than  the  heathen.  These  cannot  with  any  j ustice  be  called 
Mission  Indians,  yet  they  are  very  often  popularly  put  down  as 
such,  and  their  bad  behaviour  is  entirely  attributed  to  the  teach- 
ing they  have  received  from  the  missionaries. 

It  cannot  surprise  anyone  if  some  Indians  trained  on  a Mission 
station,  and  even  recognized  as  Christians,  should  turn  out 
failures.  We  have  too  many  of  such  failures  among  our  own 
people  to  be  able  to  throw  stones  at  recent  converts  from 

291 


’TWIXT  OLD  AND  NEW 


heathenism  who  fall.  For  the  good  of  the  Indian  race  as  a 
whole,  and  the  peaceful  development  of  the  country,  it  is  a pity 
that  the  white  men  interested  therein  do  not  co-operate  more 
heartily  and  loyally  with  missionaries,  who  undoubtedly  have 
great  influence  over  the  natives.  Advantage  to  all  would,  in 
time,  accrue  from  such  friendly  co-operation.  In  our  case,  how- 
ever, there  is  much  to  encourage  us.  We  have  had  little  to 
complain  of  up  to  the  present  on  the  part  of  the  white  men,  and 
from  out  of  heathenism  we  have  gathered  a fairly  substantial 
and  satisfactory  following,  which  the  next  chapter  will  deal  with 
pointedly  but  briefly. 

We  are  at  present  in  the  transition  stage.  There  are  large 
numbers  of  Indians  in  doubt  as  to  what  course  to  pursue.  Their 
natural  instincts  are  averse  to  a high  and  pure  life,  but  they 
have  realized  that  there  is  little  or  no  truth  in  that  which  they 
have  hitherto  believed  in  and  cherished.  From  out  of  this 
restless,  dissatisfied,  and  questioning  mass  we  hope  yet  to  win  a 
large  proportion,  chiefly  through  the  example  of  practical 
Christianity,  which  is  now  lived  daily  before  them  by  some  of 
their  own  people. 

Numbers  will  undoubtedly  prefer  rather  to  follow  their  own 
evil  inclinations,  and  must  inevitably  degenerate  still  further, 
and  eventually  disappear,  for  they  have  not  the  new  virility,  and 
yet  have  discarded  their  former  wild  simplicity.  Thus  they  will 
prove  unable  to  hold  their  own,  either  with  their  untouched 
heathen  compatriots,  or  with  the  Europeans,  or  with  their  own 
Christian  brethren.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the  long  run 
righteousness  and  true  manliness  must  win  the  day ; the  un- 
principled, vicious,  and  self-seeking,  by  their  own  actions,  are 
inevitably  preparing  the  way  for  their  own  downfall. 


292 


CHAPTER  XXX 


CHRISTIANITY  VERSUS  HEATHENISM 

The  Chaco  Mission  has  attained  its  majority.  Twenty-one 
years  ago  Adolpho  Henricksen  and  his  two  companions  arrived 
in  this  practically  unknown  land,  and  came  amongst  its  still 
less  known  people.  They  had  to  contend  with  the  physical 
difficulties  of  a primeval  tropical  country.  To  the  west,  north, 
and  south  barbarism  reigned  supreme,  extending  over  ten 
degrees  of  latitude  and  about  five  of  longitude,  and  then  again 
(with  unimportant  intervals)  northward  to  the  great  Amazon. 
Only  a few  foreign  settlements  clung  to  the  banks  of  the  River 
Paraguay. 

The  people  were  disorganized  and  nomadic  savages,  possess- 
ing nothing  that  might  be  termed  property,  thriftless,  and  never 
having  a store  of  food.  The  missionaries  were  therefore  com- 
pelled to  provide  for  themselves.  The  natives  had  few  laws, 
and  made  very  little  attempt  at  government,  no  trades,  and  no 
ambition  to  rise  above  the  level  on  which  they  stood. 

Their  country  was  under  the  dominion  of  the  Republics  of 
Paraguay,  Argentina,  and  Bolivia.  In  that  part  dominated 
by  Paraguay,  where  the  Mission  began  its  work,  no  police  or 
military  force  was  maintained  to  give  security  in  the  interior. 
The  Indians  were  entirely  heathen,  and  had  never  come  under 
the  influence  of  Christianity. 

That  there  was  great  danger  in  entering  their  country,  and 
much  more  in  attempting  to  settle  among  them,  has,  I think, 
been  made  clear.  But  the  South  American  Missionary  Society 
gave  instructions  to  their  men,  not  only  to  enter  into  and  dwell 
in  their  land,  whatever  the  risk,  but  to  attempt  no  less  a task 

293 


CHRISTIANITY  VERSUS  HEATHENISM 

than  that  of  opening  up  this  unknown  land,  of  revolutionizing 
the  native  customs,  habits,  mode  of  life,  and  laws,  and  of 
ameliorating  the  condition  of  the  people  by  winning  them  over 
as  Christian  disciples. 

During  these  twenty-one  years  the  average  Mission  staff  has 
not  numbered  five  men  actually  on  the  field.  Only  four  men 
have  exceeded  ten  years’  service,  and  yet,  in  spite  of  small 
numbers  and  limited  means,  and  the  immense  and  varied  diffi- 
culties which  had  to  be  overcome,  I leave  the  reader  to  judge, 
from  the  results  which  I give,  whether  or  not  we  have  laboured 
in  vain,  whether  we  were  justified  in  our  belief  that  this  degraded 
people  could  be  elevated  and  developed ; and  (most  important 
of  all  in  our  eyes)  whether  the  Lenguas  are  not  only  capable  of 
receiving  Christianity,  but  of  forming  a Church  which  shall  be 
self-supporting,  and,  in  its  turn,  missionary. 

Where  formerly  it  was  dangerous  for  a white  man  to  go 
without  an  armed  party,  anyone  can  now  wander  alone  and 
unarmed,  so  far  as  any  risk  from  the  Indians  may  be  appre- 
hended, over  a district  rather  larger  than  Ireland.  In  a country 
where  fifteen  years  ago  there  were  no  tracks  other  than  Indian 
footpaths  resembling  sheep-tracks  at  home,  now  about  four 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  of  cart-track  have  been  made  in  order 
that  the  Mission  bullock-carts  might  readily  traverse  the 
country.  Where  formerly  tribal  war  was  common,  peace  has 
reigned  for  many  years  over  a district  as  large  as  Ireland  and 
Scotland  combined. 

Only  ten  years  ago  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  anyone 
to  establish  an  estancia  (cattle-ranch)  in  the  interior.  The  wire 
fences  would  have  been  cut  and  the  cattle  stolen  and  killed, 
and  it  is  highly  probable  that  those  tending  them  would  also 
have  run  great  personal  risk.  Through  the  direct  instrumen- 
tality of  the  Mission  a large  English  Company,  with  its  head- 
quarters in  London,  has  now  been  established  at  a point  more 
than  ten  leagues  in  the  interior,  where  they  possess  two  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  acres  of  land,  and  employ  Indians,  together 
with  Paraguayans,  as  cowboys,  and  in  fencing  and  transport 
work. 


294 


CHRISTIANITY  VERSUS  HEATHENISM 


Another  large  South  American  Company,  founded  by  one  of 
the  leading  merchants  of  Paraguay,  has  also  been  located  in  our 
vicinity.  The  founder  acknowledged,  in  the  newspapers  of  the 
Republic,  that  had  it  not  been  for  the  civilizing  influence  of 
the  Anglican  Mission,  he  could  not  possibly  have  ventured  upon 
such  an  undertaking.  This  gentleman  is  not  a member  of  our 
Church,  but  a Paraguayan  professing  the  Roman  faith.  The 
company  possesses  over  two  hundred  thousand  acres  of  land, 
and  runs  some  thirty  thousand  head  of  cattle.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  the  best  progress  made  by  Europeans  into  the  interior 
has  been  along  the  Mission  routes.  An  Argentine  estanciero 
remarked  to  me  one  day  that  he  had  no  fear  of  establishing 
himself  in  the  interior  so  long  as  he  had  a Mission  station  in 
the  vicinity. 

When  I arrived  in  the  country,  trade  with  the  Indians  was 
practically  non-existent ; but  at  the  present  time,  directly  and 
indirectly,  it  has  attained  to  very  large  dimensions.  Nor  does 
this  newly-opened  trade  only  benefit  the  world  at  large ; but 
the  Indians  employed  by  Europeans  spend  their  wages  in  the 
purchase  of  imported  goods.  I remember  the  time  when  a 
knife,  an  axe,  a pair  of  scissors,  a hoe,  an  iron  pot  or  a kettle 
were  so  seldom  possessed  by  an  Indian  that  they  created  deep 
interest,  and  formed  the  subject  of  earnest  conversation.  But 
now  these  articles  are  in  the  hands  of  almost  every  Indian 
far  and  wide,  and  most  of  them  bear  English  trade-marks. 
Mosquito-nets  of  calico,  coloured  handkerchiefs,  and  clothing 
were  unknown  ; whereas  now,  wherever  the  Mission  influence 
has  spread,  an  Indian  considers  himself  badly  off  if  he  does  not 
at  least  own  a mosquito-net.  The  Manchester  trade-marks  are 
now  familiar  to  these  people.  Tet  how  often  we  hear  the 
remark  that  money  cannot  be  spared  for  such  a Mission  as  this, 
since  there  is  so  much  poverty  at  home ; and  here  we  find  a 
handful  of  men  opening  up  a new  field  to  English  enterprise, 
and  providing  employment  for  the  Mother  Country. 

In  addition  to  this,  I might  quote  the  indirect  increase  of 
trade  and  wealth  (in  which  England  largely  participates), 
through  the  enhanced  value  of  land,  the  augmented  trade  in 

295 


CHRISTIANITY  VERSUS  HEATHENISM 

hides,  and  the  importation  of  goods  for  the  use  of  the  workmen, 
not  to  mention  the  demand  for  vast  quantities  of  wire  for 
fencing  in  the  large  ranches.  I myself  could  have  purchased 
land  twenty  years  ago  for  twenty  or  thirty  pounds  a square 
league  (a  Paraguayan  league  is  a little  under  three  miles),  which 
quite  recently  has  changed  hands  at  twelve  to  fifteen  times  these 
figures.  The  small  sum  of  money,  therefore,  which  has  been 
expended  on  this  Mission,  as  the  reader  will  be  able  to  see,  has 
been  well  worth  the  outlay  on  material  grounds  alone. 

A people  who  have  led  a nomadic  life  for  generations  are  not 
easily  weaned  from  it.  We  have,  however,  succeeded  in  inducing 
about  three  hundred  Indians  to  adopt  a settled  and  industrious 
life.  The  majority  of  these  can  be  found  to-day  permanently 
established  on  the  Garden  Colony  of  Enmakthlawaia.  There 
each  Indian  family  possesses  its  own  house,  which  is  an  infinitely 
superior  structure  to  their  former  frail  booths.  Each  has  its 
allotted  portion  of  land  for  cultivation.  Their  herd  of  cattle 
they  own  under  a scheme  of  co-operation  which  consists  of  fifty 
shareholders,  the  largest  holder  possessing  fifteen  hundred 
dollars.1  In  addition  to  this,  the  people  work  whenever  they 
can  find  employment,  the  more  intelligent  learning  trades,  chiefly 
carpentry,  under  the  instruction  of  Mr.  W.  Sanderson.  A few 
have  recently  established  trading  stores  of  their  own. 

This  progress  could  not  possibly  have  been  achieved  unless 
the  people  had  been  prepared  by  education.  The  school  has 
been  a marked  success.  Not  only  are  many  Indians  able  to  read 
the  literature  now  existing  in  their  own  language,  but  some  can 
correspond  by  letter  with  missionaries  on  furlough.  But  space 
will  not  allow  me  to  deal  in  detail  with  the  scholastic  work. 

The  training  of  the  young  is  the  making  of  a nation.  The 
people  are  not  yet  sufficiently  advanced  to  deal  in  accounts,  and 
for  this  reason  the  Indian  Savings  Bank  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  one  of  the  staff,  at  present  Mr.  G.  R.  Farrow,  who  is 
the  headmaster  of  the  school,  and  who  manages  their  invest- 
ments, amounting  in  all  to  over  twenty  thousand  dollars.  In 

1 The  Paraguayan  dollar  varies  considerably,  but  has  ranged  during  the 
last  twelve  years  from  threepence  to  ninepence. 

296 


CHRISTIANITY  VERSUS  HEATHENISM 


addition  to  this,  the  natives  possess  sheep,  goats,  horses,  etc., 
and  the  aggregate  wealth  from  all  sources  of  this  particular 
settlement  now  exceeds  one  thousand  pounds. 

Our  policy  from  the  very  beginning  has  been  to  combine 
theoretical  education  with  practical  industrial  training.  We 
realize  that  a people  suddenly  raised  to  a higher  level  than  that 
which  they  have  occupied  for  generations  are  very  apt  to 
become  unduly  inflated.  The  Indian  is  a conceited  person,  and 
ignorance  and  conceit  go  hand  in  hand.  He  is  a wise  man  who 
knows  his  own  deficiencies.  The  Indian,  for  the  next  generation 
or  so,  must  be  content  to  earn  his  living  by  manual  labour,  but 
in  order  thoroughly  to  fit  him  for  the  task,  and  to  develop  his 
higher  nature  in  the  process,  a certain  amount  of  theoretical 
training  is  necessary. 

While  we  impress  upon  him  that  we  regard  him  as  a fellow- 
man  and  brother,  we  at  the  same  time  leave  him  under  no 
misapprehension  as  to  his  place  in  the  world  being  a humble 
one  until  such  time  as,  in  the  course  of  evolution,  he  is  qualified 
for  a higher  plane.  The  educated  scoundrel  is  the  worst  of  his 
type.  Mere  civilization  cannot  be  considered  an  altogether 
unmixed  blessing,  unless  it  is  invested  with  moral  character, 
which  is  best  developed  through  the  teaching  of  pure  Chris- 
tianity. The  moral  and  spiritual  instruction  of  the  people, 
therefore,  has  always  been  our  primary  endeavour.  Our  aim  and 
desire  are  that  the  race  may  become  a self-reliant,  self-respecting, 
honest,  intelligent,  industrious,  and  Christian  community,  thus 
fitted  to  take  their  proper  part  in  life. 

We  realize  that  man  values  that  for  which  he  has  had  to 
struggle.  To  pauperize  is  to  ruin  a people.  Our  ambition  is 
to  see  this  people  grow  up  like  the  sturdy  oak,  deep-rooted  and 
able  to  stand  alone,  and  not  luxuriate  like  the  parasitic  creepers 
in  their  forests.  We  have  therefore  insisted,  whenever  possible, 
that  an  Indian  shall  pay  for  everything  he  requires,  and  in  order 
to  pay,  that  he  should  “ labour,  working  with  his  hands  the 
thing  which  is  good.'”  We  therefore  charge  parents  a small  fee 
for  the  education  of  their  children.  It  is  true  that  this  fee  is 
by  no  means  commensurate  with  the  cost,  but  it  is  the  founda- 

297 


CHRISTIANITY  VERSUS  HEATHENISM 


tion  of  a good  principle,  and  moreover  has  the  advantage  that 
it  makes  the  parent  all  the  more  anxious  that  his  child  should 
reap  the  full  benefit  of  what  he  pays  for. 

The  reader  will  have  gathered  from  the  chapter  on  witch- 
craft that  the  introduction  of  scientific  medical  treatment  was 
very  necessary,  but  it  was  many  years  before  the  people 
appreciated  it.  Now,  however,  we  have  a small  hospital,  which 
has  cost  only  one  hundred  pounds,  generously  contributed  by 
friends  in  Ireland.  Mr.  E.  G.  Bernau,  who  has  made  a special 
study  of  the  diseases  common  to  the  Chaco,  is  in  charge  of  it, 
and  has  under  him  two  Indians — a man  and  wife — whom  he  is 
training  with  much  success.  The  Indians  take  out  tickets 
yearly,  for  which  they  pay,  and  which  entitle  them  to  medical 
treatment. 

No  community  can  exist,  as  the  world  is  at  present  consti- 
tuted, without  law  and  order.  The  Paraguayan  Government 
have,  for  nearly  eighteen  years,  officially  recognized  us  as  their 
representatives  among  the  Indians,  and  have  granted  us  all 
necessary  powers.  We  have  therefore  been  endeavouring  gradu- 
ally to  educate  the  Indian  in  municipal  government.  A small 
Indian  police  force,  approved  by  the  Government,  is  being 
trained  in  the  duties  required  of  them.  Strict  discipline  is 
maintained  on  the  station,  and  Indian  observance  of  law  and 
order  is  being  rapidly  consolidated. 

Civil  crimes  practically  do  not  exist,  or  are  of  a very  trifling 
character.  Infanticide  has  not  only  died  out  within  our  imme- 
diate sphere  of  influence,  but  is  greatly  on  the  decline  even 
among  those  more  remote  from  us.  Thus,  a race  which  at  one 
time  showed  signs  of  becoming  extinct  is  beginning  to  take  on 
a new  lease  of  life  and  vigour,  the  birth-rate  of  late  years  com- 
paring favourably  with  that  of  England.  Epidemics,  too,  such 
as  small-pox  and  measles,  which  were  formerly  so  deadly,  have 
ceased  to  inspire  serious  alarm,  thanks  to  medical  care  and  the 
intelligent  and  willing  co-operation  of  the  people  in  and  around 
the  settlement.  As  soon  as  we  are  able  to  extend  our  work, 
such  beneficial  results  as  those  above  mentioned  will  be  propor- 
tionately increased. 


298 


CHRISTIANITY  VERSUS  HEATHENISM 


Lastly,  I come  to  the  Christian  Church  as  the  crowning 
effort  of  all  our  work.  From  out  of  a chaotic  mass  of  savage 
heathenism  we  have  now,  by  the  aid  of  the  Divine  power,  the 
satisfaction  of  having  admitted  by  baptism  into  the  Church  of 
Christ  one  hundred  and  forty-nine  Lenguas,  and  of  this  number 
there  are  no  fewer  than  thirty-eight  communicants.  There  are, 
in  addition,  at  least  an  equal  number  of  probationers,  or 
inquirers.  But  these  figures  do  not  represent  the  total  extent 
of  Christian  progress.  Over  a large  area  the  whole  tone  of  the 
people  has  been  changed  for  the  better ; the  Gospel  message  has 
been  clearly  delivered,  and  we  can  afford  to  wait  in  patience 
until  the  Spirit  of  God  moves  them,  as  He  has  done  others. 
Our  business  is  to  plant  and  water  diligently  and  faithfully ; it 
is  God  who  gives  the  increase.  The  Church  of  England  Prayer- 
Book,  almost  complete,  together  with  the  four  Gospels,  portions 
of  the  Epistles  and  Genesis,  have  been  translated  and  printed  in 
Lengua,  and  also  a small  Hymnal  set  to  familiar  tunes. 

The  duty  of  Christian  giving  is  not  omitted  in  our  services. 
Collections  for  the  sick  and  poor,  Church  expenses,  and  the 
building  of  the  new  church  are  taken  up  regularly  by  the 
Indian  churchwardens.  Occasionally  we  direct  their  attention 
to  other  needs  outside  of  themselves,  in  order  that  they  may 
develop  a broad  and  generous  Christian  spirit.  For  example,  a 
small  sum  was  contributed  to  the  Indian  Famine  Fund,  which, 
when  explained,  naturally  appealed  to  their  sympathies.  Surely 
it  seems  a miracle  of  grace  when  one  contemplates  those  people, 
who  a few  years  ago  were  barbarians,  are  now  reverently  receiving 
the  rite  of  baptism,  joining  Sunday  by  Sunday  in  the  same 
worship  as  ourselves,  and  from  time  to  time  kneeling  devoutly 
in  Holy  Communion.  Nor  let  it  be  thought  that  these  Indians 
are  lightly  admitted  to  the  privileges  of  Christian  fellowship. 
Their  probation  is  long  and  severe  ; more  is  asked  of  them 
than  is  generally  required  of  Christians  at  home.  It  is  true 
that  they  are  sometimes  weak,  but  let  us  remember  the  slough 
from  which  they  have  been  dragged.  If  strict  scrutiny  were 
made  of  home  congregations,  and  the  weak  ones  weeded  out, 

how  bare  some  pews  would  be  ! 

299 


CHRISTIANITY  VERSUS  HEATHENISM 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  for  many  years  to  come  this 
young  Christian  Church  should  have  supervision  and  instruction; 
but  from  the  time  that  we  admitted  our  first  two  converts  in 
1899  we  have  impressed  upon  the  Christians  that  it  is  their 
duty,  and  must  be  their  ambition,  to  administer  as  far  as 
possible  their  own  Church,  which  they  do  even  now  to  some 
extent.  Several  are  capable  of  addressing  their  congregations ; 
they  read  the  Lessons  in  Church,  act  as  churchwardens,  and  are 
consulted  in  the  admission  of  probationers  to  Baptism,  and  as 
to  the  fitness  of  the  baptized  for  Confirmation.  They  also  have 
been  used  (under  supervision)  for  many  years  as  itinerating 
evangelists ; and  lately  a school  of  instruction  has  been  estab- 
lished for  the  training  of  future  evangelists. 

Our  hope  is  that  this  young  Church  will  become  an  earnest 
missionary  body,  and  that  thus  the  Indian  will  be  converted  by 
men  of  his  own  people. 

In  the  foregoing  pages  I have  endeavoured  to  present  a 
picture  of  these  strange  Indians  of  the  Chaco,  and  to  trace  their 
history  from  obscure  early  times  down  to  the  period  when  I 
first  knew  them,  and  made  my  long  sojourn  amongst  them. 
And  now  it  is  my  earnest  desire  that  many  of  my  readers  may 
be  interested  in  the  future  of  this  hitherto  unknown  people.  If 
we  think  of  the  savagery  and  barbarism  in  which  they  were 
found,  and  of  the  efforts  to  raise  and  develop  them  so  per- 
severingly  made  during  the  last  twenty  years,  in  the  face  of 
their  deep-rooted  adherence  to  witchcraft  and  its  attendant 
enormities  ; if  we  think  of  the  amelioration  of  their  lot  which, 
under  God’s  blessing,  has  followed,  should  not  the  further 
advancement  of  this  people  and  of  their  Church  be  recognized 
as  a noble  object  of  Christian  ambition  ? 


300 


APPENDIX  I 

THE  CHACO,  ITS  TRIBES,  EXPEDITIONS  AND  DISCOVERIES 

That  great,  low-lying,  alluvial  plain  known  as  the  Gran  Chaco  is 
situated  in  the  interior  of  South  America,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Rivers  Parana  and  Paraguay,  and  on  the  south  and  west 
by  the  Argentine  Provinces  and  the  Republic  of  Bolivia.  It  extends 
roughly  over  ten  degrees  of  latitude  and  five  of  longitude,  com- 
prising an  area  of  approximately  two  hundred  thousand  square 
miles. 

Politically  it  is  under  the  domination  of  the  Republics  of  Argen- 
tina, Paraguay,  and  Bolivia,  but  with  the  exception  of  a fringe  of 
settlements  near  the  boundaries,  the  interior  is  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  Indians.  The  principal  tribes  are  the  Mataccos,  Chiriguanas, 
Tobas,  Lenguas,  Suhin,  Kisapang,  Chamacocos,  and  the  Bororu. 
The  total  population  is  estimated  at  one  hundred  and  thirty-five 
thousand,  but  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  accuracy  owing  to  their 
nomadic  habits  and  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  anything  like  a census. 

The  average  height  of  the  Lengua  men  is  five  feet  seven  inches, 
and  of  the  women  five  feet  four  inches.  Both  sexes  are  well 
proportioned,  and  their  powers  of  endurance  are  strongly  marked. 
Their  skin  is  soft  and  of  a reddish  chocolate  colour,  but  a variety  of 
shades  is  seen  even  in  the  same  tribe. 

The  history  of  the  many  attempts  to  explore  the  Chaco  is 
concisely  given  by  Professor  J.  Graham  Kerr,  of  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, who  formed  one  of  an  expedition  under  Captain  John  Page, 
in  1889,  which  ended  disastrously  to  its  leader  and  many  followers. 
In  a paper  read  before  the  Scottish  Geographical  Society  in  1892, 
he  said,  Chaco  exploration  is  a sad  record  in  many  respects,  show- 
ing an  enormous  expenditure  of  human  life,  with  but  very  slight 
resulting  gain  to  our  knowledge. 

“Exploration  in  southern  South  Amei-ica  may  be  said  to  have 
commenced  in  1506,  when  Juan  de  Solis  discovered  the  estuary  of 

801 


APPENDIX  I 


the  La  Plata,  which  was  for  some  time  afterwards  known  by  his 
name.  Twenty  years  later  Sebastian  Cabot  again  entered  its  waters. 
On  its  banks  he  found  Indians  with  a profusion  of  silver  ornaments, 
and  from  this  he  christened  the  estuary  in  which  he  was  the  Rio  de 
la  Plata  (“the  River  of  Silver”).  At  its  upper  end  he  found  the 
mouths  of  two  distinct  rivers,  and  the  western  of  these  he  followed 
as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Bermejo.  Cabot  was  thus  the  discoverer 
of  the  Parana  and  Paraguay  Rivers,  and,  we  may  say,  of  the  Chaco. 
He  planted  settlements  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  also  on  the 
Paraguay  River,  and  colonization  at  once  began.  In  1537  Juan  de 
Ayolas  navigated  the  River  Paraguay  to  latitude  20°  40',  and  was 
told  by  the  Guarani  Indians  that  there  existed  to  the  westward  a 
nation  possessing  great  stores  of  silver.  He  thereupon  resolved  to 
march  across  in  search  of  them.  He  penetrated  far  into  the  Chaco, 
and  on  his  return,  whilst  traversing  a marsh,  was  fallen  upon  by  the 
Payaguas,  and  massacred,  with  all  his  men.  Almost  immediately 
after  the  tragic  end  of  Ayolas,  Alvarez  Nunez  de  Vera  Cabeza  de 
Vaca  was  appointed  Governor  of  La  Plata,  and  he,  in  a military 
expedition  against  the  Guaycurus  (1542),  may  be  said  to  have 
inaugurated  that  policy  of  Indian  extermination  which  is  carried  on 
to  the  present  day. 

“ Twelve  years  later  we  find  the  Chaco  attacked  from  its  north- 
west side,  when  the  Viceroy  of  Peru  despatched  one  of  his  officers, 
Andreas  Manso,  at  the  head  of  an  expedition  to  attempt  the 
conquest  of  the  Chaco.  He,  however,  merely  managed  to  cross  the 
Pilcomayo  into  the  Chaco  Central,  and  was  surprised  during  the 
night  by  the  Chiriguanos,  losing  his  life  with  those  of  all  his 
followers.  Hence  this  central  part  of  the  Chaco  received  the  name 
of  Llanos  de  Manso.  During  the  following  century  (the  seven- 
teenth) there  is  little  to  chronicle,  save  that  the  Jesuits,  from  their 
headquarters  in  Paraguay,  sent  numerous  missionaries  into  the 
Chaco,  whose  efforts  towards  the  permanent  conversion  of  the 
Indians  were  quite  fruitless,  and  many  of  whom  lost  their  lives  in 
the  attempt.  This  and  the  eighteenth  century  were  also  character- 
ized by  several  military  attempts  at  Chaco  exploration  and  subjuga- 
tion, mostly  at  the  instance  of  successive  Governors  of  Tucuman, 
such  as  Angelo  Peredo  (1670),  Urizar  (1710),  Espinosa  (1759), 
Matorras  (1774),  and  Arias  (1780).  These,  however,  I pass  over 
without  further  comment,  and  I shall  now  restrict  myself,  from  time 
considerations,  to  the  exploration  of  the  River  Pilcomayo.  We 
again  find  the  Jesuits  first  in  the  field. 

302 


APPENDIX  I 


“In  1721  Padre  Patino  succeeded  in  penetrating  a long  way  up 
the  river,  but  was  compelled  ultimately  to  beat  a rapid  retreat  by 
an  attack  from  the  Toba  Indians,  in  which  he  lost  several  of  his 
men.  Twenty  years  later  Padre  Castanares  made  a somewhat 
similar  journey  up  the  Pilcomayo,  and  with  similar  result.  And  in 
1785  Don  Felix  De  Azara,  the  celebrated  traveller  and  naturalist, 
ascended  the  river  for  a short  distance. 

“ The  expeditions  of  the  present  century  have  been  numerous, 
and  I shall  mention  only  the  more  important.  Four  of  these  started 
from  Bolivia,  and  attempted  to  descend  the  river.  Those  of 
Magarinos  and  v.  Nivel  (1843-44)  were  forced  to  return,  owing  to 
the  immense  numbers  of  hostile  Indians  who  menaced  them  on  all 
sides.  That  of  Crevaux,  the  celebrated  botanist  and  traveller,  has 
an  especially  sad  interest  attached  to  it.  He  started  from  Tarija 
in  Bolivia  early  in  February,  1882,  with  only  fourteen  companions. 
They  encountered  large  numbers  of  Indians  during  the  early  days 
of  their  journey,  who  appeared  exceedingly  friendly,  and  so  in- 
spired Crevaux’s  confidence  that  it  is  said  he  removed  the  strikers 
from  the  locks  of  his  men’s  rifles  to  prevent  them  from  alarming  the 
Indians  by  firing.  All  went  well  until  the  afternoon  of  April  27, 
when,  as  they  were  marching  along  in  single  file,  a large  number  of 
Indians  sprang  on  them  from  an  ambuscade,  and  clubbed  them  to 
death,  only  one  of  their  number,  a boy,  surviving  to  tell  the  tale. 
The  last  of  the  Bolivian  expeditions  was  that  of  1883.  This  con- 
sisted of  nearly  two  hundred  well-armed  men,  and  was  accompanied 
by  Dr.  Thouar,  a French  explorer.  It  marched  down  more  or  less 
parallel  to  the  Pilcomayo,  and  reached  the  River  Paraguay,  after 
undergoing  great  privations  and  a severe  battle  with  eight  hundred 
Indians. 

“ The  later  expeditions  of  the  River  Pilcomayo  have  been  those 
of  Thouar,  of  Fontana,  of  Feilberg,  and  of  Storm.  The  three  latter 
have  been  all  by  steamer,  and  they  have  each  succeeded  in  pene- 
trating for  a greater  or  less  distance  up  the  river,  being  eventually 
brought  to  a halt  by  want  of  water.  I shall  not  dwell  on  them 
further,  except  to  say  that  the  last  mentioned,  that  under  Mr.  Olaf 
Storm,  has  been  the  most  fruitful  in  results.  It  entered  the 
Pilcomayo  on  January  1 of  1890,  and  left  it  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year.” 

The  Jesuits,  full  of  daring  and  zeal,  made  a valiant  attempt  to 
reduce  some  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Chaco,  notably  that  of 
Dobrizhoffer  and  his  companions  (1749-67).  But  the  first 

303 


APPENDIX  I 


Protestant  missionary  effort  in  this  region  was  made  by  Captain 
Allen  Gardiner,  R.N.,  in  the  year  1845,  who  was  the  founder  of  the 
South  American  Missionary  Society.  His  attempt  to  settle  among 
the  Tobas  proved  futile,  and  it  was  not  until  forty-three  years  later 
that  the  Society  succeeded  in  establishing  a Mission  among  the 
Chaco  Indians,  under  the  leadership  of  Adolpho  Henrieksen. 

In  recent  years  Ibareta  and  his  party,  and  Boggiani  made  explora- 
tions, the  former  on  the  River  Pilcomayo,  and  the  latter  in  the 
north  of  the  Chaco,  but  in  both  cases  they  were  massacred  by  the 
Indians. 


304 


APPENDIX  II 


GEOLOGICAL  STRUCTURE,  CLIMATE,  FAUNA  AND  FLORA 
OF  THE  CHACO 

PART  I. 

Extracts  from  Papers  Read  before  the  Scottish  Geographical 
Society,  January,  1892,  by  Professor  J.  Graham  Kerr,  M.A., 
F.R.S.,  Regius  Professor  of  Zoology,  Glasgow  University. 

“ The  Chaco  is  the  more  northern  portion  of  that  great  estuarine 
plain  whose  southern  part  is  so  well  known  to  us  as  the  Pampas, 
and  which  forms  a large  portion  of  the  basin  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
In  its  physical  features  the  Chaco  agrees  in  many  points  with  the 
Pampas  ; the  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  them  is  due  rather 
to  their  botanical  characteristics.  The  Pampa  is  open,  grassy,  and 
treeless  ; the  Gran  Chaco,  on  the  other  hand,  possesses  luxuriant 
forests.  Its  surface  is  almost  uniformly  level,  broken  only  by  almost 
imperceptible  undulations,  and  with  a general  slope  of  from  eight 
to  ten  inches  per  mile  towards  the  south-east.  The  mean  height 
above  sea-level  of  the  Chaco  Central  may  be  taken  as  about  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet.  ...  In  geological  structure  the  Gran 
Chaco  resembles  its  southern  continuation.  Solid  rock  is  but 
rarely  seen,  and  when  it  is  exposed  in  the  river-bed  we  find  it  to 
consist  entirely  of  the  soft,  fine-grained  tertiary  sandstones  of  the 
Pampean  Age.  River  sections  show  a horizontal  series  of  these 
beds  topped  by  fine  flood  silt,  with  occasional  layers  of  sand.  The 
soil  is,  in  the  inner  part  of  the  Chaco,  almost  entirely  composed  of 
this  extremely  fine-grained  silt,  true  vegetable  mould  being  almost 
entirely  absent,  and  it  is  evidently  a product  of  the  periodic 
inundations  which  the  region  undergoes.  It  is  so  exceedingly  fine- 
grained as  to  be  almost  impermeable  to  water,  except  under  the 
action  of  capillarity. 


305 


u 


APPENDIX  II 


“ Rain-water  scarcely  sinks  through  it  at  all ; but,  during  the 
periods  of  intense  dessication,  capillarity  causes  a continuous  though 
imperceptible  upward  progress  of  moisture  to  the  surface,  where  it 
is  evaporated,  deposits  the  salts  held  in  solution,  and  is  replaced  by 
a fresh  supply  from  below.  In  this  way  the  amount  of  soluble 
mineral  matter  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  goes  on  increasing 
continually,  and  such  is,  I believe,  the  explanation  of  the  saltness 
of  the  Chaco  soil  ; and,  as  if  bearing  out  this  view,  we  find  that 
within  the  forests,  where  evaporation  is  so  much  less  potent,  the 
soil  is  no  longer  abnormally  salt. 

“ An  interesting  phenomenon  frequently  to  be  seen  in  this  region 
is  that  the  surface  layer  of  flood  deposit  in  the  dry  season  exhibits 
the  most  perfect  division  into  vertical  pentagonal  columns.  This, 
again,  I attribute  to  the  extremely  fine-grained  character  of  the 
deposit,  there  being  no  pebbles  or  other  obstacles  to  the  due  work- 
ing of  the  physical  laws  of  contraction,  which  consequently  produce 
the  same  result  as  during  the  gradual  cooling  and  contraction  of  a 
stream  of  basaltic  lava. 

“ The  climate  of  the  Gran  Chaco  is  essentially  one  of  great 
extremes.  In  the  forest-band  around  its  margin  these  extremes 
are  tempered  off  to  a certain  extent ; it  is  in  the  open  central 
portions  that  they  are  most  felt.  The  average  rainfall  at  Formosa 
in  the  Central  Chaco  is  fifty-four  inches  annually.  In  the  more 
central  parts  of  the  Chaco,  however,  it  is  probably  much  less  than 
this,  owing  to  the  long-continued  seasons  of  drought.  There  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  be  a true  rainy  season,  for  though,  as  a rule, 
most  of  the  rainfall  is  restricted  to  the  summer  months — October 
to  March — yet  occasionally  heavy  rains  occur  at  other  times  of  the 
year.  The  rainfall  over  the  Gran  Chaco  generally  appears  to  be 
subject  to  a curious  cycle,  the  length  of  which  is  approximately 
ten  years,  the  periods  of  maxima  being  marked  by  universal  inunda- 
tion to  a depth  of  several  feet  over  enormous  tracts  of  country. 
During  these  inundations  the  Chaco  rivers  may  rise  to  a height  of 
twenty  feet  above  the  normal,  and  continue  in  high  flood  in  any 
case  for  several  months,  sometimes  for  over  a year.  Succeeding 
this  period  of  rainfall,  a period  of  dessication  sets  in.  The  overflow 
waters  contract  their  limits  and  become  isolated  lagoons ; these  in 
turn  shrink  up  and  give  place  to  marshes,  and  the  intervening 
country  becomes  dry  and  parched,  and  saturated  with  salt. 

“ The  mean  temperature  of  the  Central  Chaco  we  may  take  at 
about  72°  F.,  on  either  side  of  which,  however,  great  variation 

30G 


A Typical  “Palmar”  Scene 

Palm  forests  cover  immense  areas.  I he  expanse  of  thick,  spiny  grass  three  or  four  feet  high,  from  which  the  “ Carandai  ” fan-palms  rise  ii 
stately  grandeur,  is  often  changed  to  a bleak  watery  waste.  The  trunks  bear  dark  lines,  showing  the  high-water  marks  of  the  floods. 


APPENDIX  II 


takes  place,  so  that  on  a summer’s  afternoon,  with  the  north  wind 
blowing,  the  temperature  in  the  shade  may  frequently  go  up  to 
110°  F.,  while  in  the  depth  of  winter,  just  at  sunrise,  it  may  fall 
below  freezing.  The  great  fall  of  temperature  always  experienced 
in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning  is  the  result  of  intense  radiation 
taking  place  from  the  grass-covered  plains  towards  the  clear  sky, 
and,  as  a natural  consequence  of  this  great  fall  in  temperature,  the 
nightly  dews  in  the  Chaco  are  extraordinarily  heavy.  The  prevalent 
winds  are  the  north  and  the  south.  The  former  is  the  hot  wind  ; 
it  is  comparable  with  the  Sirocco.  It  parches  up  all  nature,  and 
in  animals  powerfully  affects  the  nervous  system,  in  some  cases  even 
producing  insanity.  The  south  wind,  which  fortunately  blows  for  a 
greater  part  of  the  year  than  the  north,  is,  on  the  other  hand,  cold 
and  refreshing  ; and  it  is  to  its  meeting  the  north  wind,  and  cooling 
it  rapidly,  that  the  rains  of  the  Chaco  are  due. 

“The  surface  of  the  Chaco  generally  is  covered  with  vegetation 
characterized  by  its  extreme  sameness  and  monotony.  This  is  all 
the  more  striking  when  one  compares  it  with  the  rich  tropical 
luxuriance  of  regions  in  the  same  latitude  to  the  eastward.  One 
finds,  as,  in  fact,  in  most  extensive  open  plains,  an  absence  of 
variety  and  a marked  preponderance  of  what  are  called  social 
plants. 

“In  the  typical  interior  parts  of  the  Chaco  far-reaching  grassy 
expanses  are  varied  by  patches  of  forest,  or  monte,  composed  for  the 
most  part  of  small  and  scrubby  myrtaeeous  trees. 

“ The  open  grass-lands  are  frequently  dotted  with  innumerable 
Carandai  fan  palms  ( Copemicia  cerifera,  Mart.),  and  then  we  have 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  types  of  Chaco  scenery— that  of  the 
palmar,  or  palm-grove.  The  ground  is  everywhere  covered  with  a 
thick  growth  of  grass  of  four  or  five  feet  high,  from  which  arise  at 
intervals  the  thick  and  squat  stems  of  the  Carandai  palms.  These 
palmares  are  quite  unique  in  their  general  effect.  In  the  early 
morning,  when  the  air  is  crisp  and  clear,  and  not  a breath  of  wind 
stirs,  and  the  tips  of  the  palm-leaves  are  bathed  in  golden  sunlight, 
the  scene  is  one  of  fairy-like  beauty.  But  in  the  depth  of  winter, 
when  the  grass  has  all  been  consumed  by  Indian  fires,  when  the  sky 
is  covered  with  leaden  clouds,  and  a biting  south-east  wind  causes 
the  dry  and  withered  palm-leaves  to  rustle  mournfully,  then  the 
scene  is  one  of  bleak  and  inhospitable  melancholy. 

“ The  Palm  Forest  cover's  immense  areas  throughout  the  Chaco, 
and  is  specially  characteristic  of  the  low-lying  portions  liable  to 

307 


APPENDIX  II 


inundation ; and  one  may  always  see  on  the  palm-trunks  a dark 
line  some  three  to  five  feet  above  the  ground,  marking  the  level  of 
flood  waters. 

“ The  patches  of  forest  in  the  interior  ot  the  Chaco  are  not  at  all  of 
the  kind  apt  to  be  recalled  by  the  words  * South  American  Forest,’ 
but  are  little  more  than  thickets  of  small  and  scrubby  trees,  so 
interwoven  with  lianas  and  other  climbing  plants,  and  mingled 
with  spiny  Bromeliaceoe  and  cacti,  as  to  be  quite  impassable  by  man 
or  beast. 

“ One  does  find  an  occasional  large  forest  tree,  but  these  are 
comparatively  few  in  number.  In  the  little  montes  one  finds  the 
Guay acan  ( Ccesalpinia  melanocarpa,  Gr.),  the  Quebracho  Colorado 
( Quebrachia  Lorentzii,  Gr.),  and  the  Palo  cruz  ( Tabebuia  nodosa,  Gr.), 
all  fine  timber  trees  ; while  in  the  open  one  encounters  several 
species  of  the  genus  Prosopis — the  Final  ( Prosopis  ruscifolia,  Gr.), 
the  Algaroba  (P.  julijlora),  and  the  Nandubey  ( P . nandubey,  Lor.)  Of 
these,  the  Algaroba  bears  a long,  locust-like  pod  containing  a large 
quantity  of  sugar,  and  which  forms  an  exceedingly  nourishing  and 
staying  article  of  food.  The  Indians  pound  the  pods  up,  and  mix 
them  into  a kind  of  paste  with  the  fruit  of  the  Mistol  ( Zizyphus 
mislol,  Gr.),  so  as  to  form  a very  palatable  kind  of  cake. 

“Other  important  trees  occurring  in  the  central  parts  of  the 
Chaco  are  the  Palo  santo,  or  holy  wood  ( Guayacum  officinale),  so  well 
known  both  as  a timber  and  as  a drug,  and  the  Cascaranda,  of  which 
the  heartwood  forms  a timber  of  extraordinary  density,  hardness, 
and  tenacity. 

“ I shall  not  detain  you  by  mentioning  any  of  the  smaller  plants 
of  the  Chaco,  with  the  exception  of  two.  The  first  of  these — the 
Uvira  of  the  Paraguayans — is  a Bromeliaceous  plant  with  long 
narrow  leaves,  which,  with  a minimum  of  trouble,  yield  a fibre  of 
great  tenacity,  especially  valuable  for  its  power  of  resisting  the 
effects  of  moisture.  At  present  its  fibres  are  greatly  used  by  the 
Indians,  who  make  from  it  a coarse  cloth  for  their  garments,  as  well 
as  twine  and  rope  ; but  it  yet  remains  to  be  exploited  by  European 
capitalists,  when  it  will  no  doubt  give  rise  to  an  important  industry. 
The  other  plant  is  the  Caraguatd  it,  another  Bromelia,  which,  al- 
though of  little  value  in  itself,  becomes  an  inestimable  boon  to  the 
explorers  of  the  salt-saturated  region  it  inhabits,  for  the  hollow 
axils  of  its  leaves  store  up  the  dew  and  other  moisture,  and  preserve 
it  cold  and  clear,  as  if  for  the  special  benefit  of  the  traveller. 

“ I have  said  that  the  vegetation  of  the  Chaco  is  poor  and  mono- 

308 


APPENDIX  II 


tonous  on  the  whole,  but  I must  qualify  this  statement  by  mention- 
ing that  on  the  borders,  where  the  climate  is  more  equable  and 
the  country  better  drained,  we  find  a band  of  luxuriant  vegetation. 
Towards  the  western  border  this  takes  the  form  of  a continuous 
strip  of  absolutely  impenetrable  forest ; on  the  eastern,  of  rich 
woodland,  interspersed  with  luxuriant  pasture.  It  is  this  peripheral 
zone,  and  narrow  prolongations  of  it  along  the  banks  of  the  fresh- 
water streams,  that  I believe  to  be  the  only  parts  of  the  Chaco 
destined  to  become  of  great  economical  value. 

“ Animal  life  in  the  Chaco  is  varied  and  characteristic.  The 
marshy  regions  are  the  haunt  of  the  tapir  ( Tapirus  Americanus),  the 
great  marsh  deer  ( Cariacus  paludosus),  the  Carpincho  or  Capibara 
[Hydrochcerus  cabybara),  the  Coypu  ( Myopotamus  coypus),  and  a large 
otter  ( Lutra  paranensis).  By  the  forest  margin  one  encounters  large 
troops  of  peccaries  ( Dicotyles  labiatus  and  D.  lorquatus),  an  occasional 
great  ant-eater  ( Myrmecopkaga  jubata),  and  numerous  armadilloes ; 
while  here  and  there  one  comes  across  one  of  the  large  carnivora, 
such  as  the  jaguar  ( Fclis  onqa),  the  puma  (/<’.  concolor),  or  the 
Aguard  gaazu,  or  maned  wolf  (Canis  jubatus).  Bird-life  is  abundant 
and  varied,  flocks  of  shrill-voiced  parrots  fly  hither  and  thither, 
woodpeckers  of  all  sizes  and  varieties  are  heard  busily  at  work, 
and  by  the  margin  of  a lonely  lagoon  one  may  see  the  great  jabiru 
( Myctena  Americana)  standing  motionless  on  one  leg,  as  if  buried  in 
contemplation  of  the  silence  around  him. 

“ It  is  perhaps  at  night  that  the  explorer  becomes  most  impressed 
with  the  presence  of  animal  life  in  the  Chaco.  If  it  is  summer-time 
the  whole  air  is  filled  with  the  sounds  of  insect  life — high  above 
everything  else  rises  the  metallic  hum  of  the  mosquito  and  the  chirp 
of  innumerable  crickets ; while  this  is  broken  in  upon  every  now 
and  then  by  the  heavy  hum  of  a large  beetle  or  the  shrill  railway- 
whistle  of  the  Cicada.  In  winter-time,  however,  the  nights  are 
excessively  cold,  the  insect  world  is  still,  and  there  reigns  over  all 
Nature  a silence  deep  almost  to  oppressiveness,  broken  only  at 
intervals  by  the  cry  of  the  Nacurutu  owl  ( Bubo  virginianus),  or  the 
loud  roar  of  the  Aguard  gauzu,  or  the  fearful  and  blood-curdling 
screams  of  the  Paca-d  [A r amides  ypecaha).  The  intense  wildness  and 
eeriness  of  these  night-sounds  of  the  Chaco  must  be  heard  to  be 
appreciated ; but  the  wildest  and  most  eerie  of  them  all  is  the 
voice  of  its  human  inhabitants,  when  heard  chanting  at  dead  of 
night  a war-song,  or  a wild  lament  for  their  dead,  or  a night-long 
incantation,  to  drive  away  the  evil  spirits  from  their  sick  ones.” 

30‘J 


APPENDIX  II 


PART  II. 

Extracts  from  “ A Zoological  Expedition  to  South  America,” 
By  W.  E.  Agar,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  Fellow  of  King’s  College, 
Cambridge.1 

“ Of  all  the  regions  into  which  the  world  is  divided  by  zoologists 
in  accordance  with  their  faunas,  by  far  the  most  interesting  is  that 
comprising  South  America.  The  sportsman  in  search  of  big  game 
goes  to  Africa,  where  he  meets  enormous  herds  of  that  perhaps 
most  highly  specialized  and  successful  of  all  the  orders  of  mam- 
malia, the  ungulates  or  hoofed  animals,  and  is  able  to  take  his  part 
in  the  extermination  of  the  antelopes,  giraffes,  rhinoceroses,  zebras, 
hippotamus,  and  elephants.  These  forms,  however,  so  characteristic 
of  the  African  continent,  for  the  very  reason  that  they  belong  to  a 
highly  specialized  group,  are  of  no  special  interest  to  the  zoologist. 
If  we  turn  to  South  America  we  find  a very  different  state  of  things. 
Instead  of  great  herds  of  ungulates,  we  find  there  only  four  families 
of  them  represented.  The  pigs  are  represented  by  the  peccary,  the 
cervidae  by  a few  species  of  deer,  the  camels  by  the  llama,  and 
finally  there  is  the  tapir ; while  the  beasts  which  we  may  call 
characteristic  of  the  country  are  such  forms  as  the  opossum,  arma- 
dillo,  ant-eater,  and  sloth,  all  very  lowly  organized  mammals. 

“ Our  interest  in  the  South  American  fauna  is  deepened,  and 
becomes  a more  intelligent  one  when  we  examine  its  history  in 
past  geological  ages. 

“ The  past  history  of  the  mammals  shows  us  that,  broadly  speak- 
ing, most  new  forms  arose  in  the  North  Polar  regions  (which  we 
know  were  much  warmer  then  than  now)  and  spread  thence  south- 
wards, exterminating  to  a large  extent  the  more  primitive  earlier 
forms,  and  being  sometimes  ousted  in  their  turn  by  new  forms 
migrating  southwards.  Now  the  primitive  mammals  which  arose  in 
the  Northern  Hemisphere  seem  to  have  reached  South  America, 
not  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  for  we  know  that  the  whole 
south  portion  of  North  America  was  submerged  at  this  period,  but 
probably  by  means  of  a land  connection  across  the  Atlantic  with 
Africa.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  exact  nature  of  this  con- 
nection between  South  America  and  the  other  land  masses  of  the 
globe  towards  the  end  of  the  secondary  geological  epoch,  it  is 
certain  that  it  was  soon  broken  through,  and  that  South  America 

1 Read  before  the  Royal  Philosophical  Society  of  Glasgow,  January  13, 
1909. 


310 


APPENDIX  II 


was  completely  isolated  during  the  whole  of  that  period  in  which 
the  most  active  evolution  of  mammalia  was  taking  place  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  The  few  low  mammals  which  had  got  into 
South  America  before  it  became  isolated  evolved  a very  peculiar 
mammalian  fauna,  including  such  forms  as  the  giant  sloth,  or  Mega- 
therium, and  glyptodonts  like  gigantic  armadillos,  which,  however, 
never  reached  a very  high  grade  of  development,  such  as  the 
mammals  in  the  more  desperate  struggle  for  existence  that  was 
going  on  in  other  parts  of  the  world  were  attaining. 

“ During  the  end  of  the  Miocene  period  the  emergence  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  allowed  the  influx  of  the  more  highly  specialized 
forms  from  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  completely  changed  the 
character  of  the  South  American  fauna.  In  fossiliferous  beds  after 
this,  though  they  had  been  conspicuously  absent  before,  we  find 
lions,  the  sabre-toothed  tiger,  dogs,  bears,  llama,  deer,  horses, 
tapirs,  and  peccaries  appearing  now  for  the  first  time  in  South 
America,  though  they  had  been  abundant  in  other  parts  of  the 
globe  for  ages  before.  These  new  forms  established  themselves 
to  a great  extent  at  the  expense  of  the  old  typical  South  American 
fauna.  Remains  of  this  original  fauna,  however,  still  survive  in 
the  opossum,  armadillo,  ant-eater,  and  sloths,  while  the  new  forms, 
which  are  now  far  more  abundant,  both  in  numbers  and  species, 
include  such  forms  as  the  deer,  tapir,  peccary,  puma,  jaguar,  wild- 
cats, dogs,  etc. 

“ The  mammals  are  not  the  only  animals  which  are  represented 
in  South  America  by  lowly  forms.  ...  In  ancient  geological  ages 
a group  of  fishes  called  the  Dipnoi  were  the  dominant  group.  They 
have  left  their  fossil  remains  all  over  the  world.  At  the  present 
day,  as  has  happened  in  so  many  cases  with  formerly  important 
and  cosmopolitan  groups  of  mammals,  they  now  survive  only  in  the 
three  most  southern  of  the  mainland  masses  of  the  world.  I refer 
to  the  lung-fishes,  of  which  one  survives  in  Queensland,  one  in 
Africa,  and  the  third  in  South  America.  The  South  American 
lung -fish,  Lepidosiren,  besides  its  interest  from  its  position  in  the 
animal  kingdom,  forming,  as  it  does,  a sort  of  connecting  link 
between  fishes  and  terrestrial  vertebrates,  happens  to  afford  prob- 
ably the  most  favourable  material  of  all  vertebrates  for  deter- 
mining certain  problems  of  the  microscopical  structure  of  living 
animals.  . . . 

“ It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  presence  of  these 
primitive  forms  is  the  only  attraction  this  continent  has  to  offer 

311 


APPENDIX  II 


to  the  naturalist.  Probably  nowhere  in  the  world  is  there  such  a 
profusion  of  strange  and  beautiful  birds  and  insects. 

“ My  goal  was  one  of  the  stations  of  the  South  American  Mis- 
sionary Society,  very  near  where  Professor  Graham  Kerr  obtained 
the  material  for  his  well-known  work  on  the  embryology  of 
Lepidosircn.  . . . 

“ . . . The  modern  remnants  of  the  original  South  American 
mammalian  fauna  which  flourished  unchallenged  before  the  immigra- 
tion of  the  more  pushful  ungulates  and  carnivora  which  now  form 
the  more  conspicuous  part  of  the  mammalian  fauna,  are  here  in  the 
forest,  but  they  are  all  retiring  creatures,  and  need  looking  for. 
Naturally,  however,  it  is  they  that  interest  the  zoologist  chiefly. 
Indeed,  collections  of  embryological  material  of  certain  forms  of 
them  have  never  before  been  obtained.  The  little  mouse  opossum 
( Didelphys  pusilla),  one  of  the  marsupials,  is  one  of  these  animals. 
It  is  a nocturnal  creature,  a size  larger  than  a mouse,  with  enormous 
black  eyes,  fan-like  ears,  and  long  prehensile  tail.  It  lives  squirrel- 
like among  the  trees. 

“ Then  the  armadillos,  relations  of  the  gigantic  extinct  mega- 
therium and  Glyptodonts,  live  among  the  undergrowth  in  these 
forests.  They  are  abundant  both  in  numbers  and  species,  but  very 
difficult  to  see.  The  Indians  catch  them  alive  by  following  up  their 
tracks  into  their  burrows.  I was  able  to  collect  a fair  number  of 
specimens  belonging  to  three  different  genera. 

“The  other  members  of  the  ancient  fauna  which  linger  on  in  the 
forests  of  the  Paraguayan  Chaco  are  the  ant-eaters.  These  are 
rarely  met  with,  and  rewards,  huge  in  their  eyes,  were  offered  to  the 
Indians  for  specimens.  Our  efforts  resulted  in  the  capture  of  two 
specimens  of  Myrmecopkaga,  the  great  ant-eater.  Surely  no  living 
mammal  presents  such  a weird  appearance  as  does  this  beast.  It  is 
a large  animal,  fully  seven  feet  long,  counting  the  long  tail,  which 
is  carried  horizontally  and  covered  with  a long  thick  mane,  having 
the  effect  of  making  the  animal  appear  much  larger  than  it  really  is. 
The  snout  is  enormously  prolonged,  ending  in  a very  small  mouth 
through  which  the  long  tongue  can  be  protruded.  The  claws  of 
the  front  legs  are  very  long  and  strong,  and  the  legs  themselves 
provided  with  huge  muscles,  for  the  purpose  of  tearing  open  the 
ant-hills.  Moreover,  the  beast  is  strongly  bandy-legged,  so  that  it 
shuffles  along  on  the  sides  of  its  fore-paws,  the  palms  of  the  hands 
turned  inwards.  In  consequence  of  this  the  animal  is  only  capable 
of  a very  clumsy,  shuffling  gait,  and  could  have  no  hope  of  escaping 

312 


APPENDIX  II 


an  enemy  by  flight.  The  herculean  front  legs,  with  their  terrible 
claws,  however,  are  all  that  are  required  as  defensive  weapons,  and 
with  these  it  can  rip  open  a dog  before  it  has  a chance  to  get  its 
teeth  through  its  bristly  hair  and  tough  skin.  It  is  even  said, 
though  I do  not  know  on  what  evidence,  that  it  is  a match  for  the 
jaguar.  . . . 

“ ...  In  spite  of  the  vast  areas  of  land  completely  submerged  in 
the  rainy  season,  one  never  gets  the  sight  of  a sheet  of  water.  In 
the  dry  season  the  swamps  are  mere  plains  covered  with  short 
grass.  Directly  the  rains  come  and  the  water  begins  to  stand 
about,  the  weeds  spring  up  with  astonishing  quickness,  and  where 
three  months  ago  there  was  short,  parclied-up  grass,  in  the  deeper 
parts  of  the  swamp  there  will  now  be  perhaps  four  feet  of  water 
and  a growth  of  grasses  and  papyrus  matted  together  with  con- 
volvulus and  other  creeping  plants,  far  higher  than  a man’s  head, 
and  so  dense  that  one  has  difficulty  in  fighting  one’s  way  through  it. 

“ These  swamps  are  the  homes  of  millions  of  wild  fowl.  There 
are  flocks  of  ducks  of  various  species  in  such  countless  numbers  that 
the  noise  of  them  striking  their  wings  on  the  water  as  they  rise  into 
the  air  often  deceives  the  new-comer  into  thinking  he  hears  a distant 
roll  of  thunder.  Storks  and  herons  are  there  in  plenty,  the  great 
chaja  ( Palamedea ),  with  its  piercing  scream,  and  the  jacana,  a bird 
not  unlike  a very  small  moor-hen,  of  a bright  chestnut  colour  with 
lemon-coloured  underwings.  It  has  very  long  toes,  which  enable  it 
to  run  over  the  surface  of  the  floating  weeds  without  sinking  in. 
They  go  about  in  small  flocks,  and  have  a beautiful  habit  of 
suddenly  raising  their  wings  so  as  to  expose  the  yellow  undersurface 
for  a few  seconds.  Ibises  are  there  in  great  numbers  too,  and  many 
other  peculiar  birds,  some  of  great  size,  rise  up  before  one  with 
great  flapping  of  wings  as  one  pushes  one’s  way  laboriously  through 
the  tall  weeds. 

“ Of  all  the  denizens  of  the  swanks,  the  most  interesting  to  the 
naturalist  is,  of  course,  the  lungfish,  or  Lepidosiren.  Although  speci- 
mens of  these  have  always  been  great  rarities  in  museums,  at  any 
rate  prior  to  Professor  Kerr’s  expedition,  they  are  extremely  abundant 
in  the  Chaco  swamps — in  fact,  they  form  a very  important  part  of 
the  natives’  food  supply. 

“ During  the  wet  season,  when  the  swamps  are  full,  the  lungfish 
lives  like  a fish  in  the  water — unlike  an  ordinary  fish,  however,  in 
that  it  has  to  rise  to  the  surface  to  breathe  now  and  then,  for  its 
gills  are  reduced  and  incapable  of  extracting  sufficient  oxygen  out 

313 


APPENDIX  II 


of  the  water.  In  compensation  for  this,  it  possesses,  as  its  name 
implies,  a pair  of  typical  lungs,  by  means  of  w hich  it  can  breathe 
air.  During  this  period  the  fish  are  captured  by  the  Indians  by 
spearing. 

“ The  thick  weeds  and  reddish  colour  of  the  water  make  it  quite 
impossible  to  see  the  fish,  but  they  often  betray  themselves  by 
causing  a quiver  in  the  reeds  as  they  swim  past,  showing  the  hunter 
where  to  strike.  A full-grown  female  is  over  three  feet  long,  and 
as  it  is  pretty  thick  too,  it  presents  a fair-sized  target.  More  often 
they  spear  the  male  as  it  lies  in  its  nest  guarding  its  young. 

“When  the  swamps  dry  up,  the  lungfish  makes  a burrow  for  itself 
in  the  soft  mud,  and  lies  in  it  with  its  tail  curled  up  over  its  head. 
The  burrow  communicates  with  the  air  by  a narrow  opening.  At 
first  the  fish  lies  close  beneath  the  surface,  but  as  the  upper  layers 
of  mud  dry  up,  it  deepens  its  burrow,  so  that  it  is  always  found  in  a 
stratum  of  fairly  moist  mud. 

“ In  this  burrow  the  fish  has  to  lie  till  the  swamps  are  again  filled 
next  rainy  season.  As  this  season  is  in  some  years  missed  out,  it 
has  to  be  prepared  to  last  at  least  eighteen  months  without  food. 
It  makes  ready  for  this  fast  by  eating  much  more  than  it  requires 
during  the  wet  season,  and  storing  up  the  surplus  as  fat,  especially 
in  the  tail.  During  the  dry  season  this  fat  is  slowly  re-absorbed. 
The  chief  food  of  the  lungfish  is  a water-snail,  Ampullaria. 

“ It  was  curious  to  think,  as  one  walked  over  the  parched  plains 
which  represent  the  swamps  in  the  dry  season,  that  a few  feet 
below  that  baked-up  surface  were  thousands  of  living  fish.  And 
the  lungfish  is  not  the  only  possessor  of  this  interesting  habit,  but 
a kind  of  eel,  Symbranchus,  passes  the  dry  season  in  much  the 
same  way,  and  I saw  some  Indians  who  were  engaged  in  digging  a 
well  bring  out  several  live  specimens  from  some  feet  below  the 
surface. 

“ During  the  dry  season  the  Indians  dig  the  lungfish  out  of  the 
ground  with  sharp  wooden  stakes,  the  little  breathing  hole  at  the 
top  of  the  buiTow  betraying  it  at  once. 

“ Most  of  my  efforts  were  directed  towards  finding  nests  of  the 
lungfish,  as  the  material  required  consisted  mainly  of  breeding 
males  and  developing  eggs.  The  nest  of  the  Lepidosiren  consists  of 
a tunnel  slanting  obliquely  downwards  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom 
of  the  swamp,  and  roughly  lined  with  fragments  of  water-weeds. 
After  she  has  laid  her  eggs  the  female  swims  away  and  takes  no 
more  thought  for  the  future  of  her  progeny.  Not  so  the  male, 

314 


APPENDIX  II 


however.  The  eggs  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  burrow,  and  the 
male  lies  in  the  passage  leading  to  it,  ready  to  defend  his  home  with 
his  powerful  teeth — as  I proved  unintentionally  on  my  own  person 
by  putting  my  hand  into  a burrow  from  which  I thought  the  male 
had  been  driven  out. 

“The  devotion  of  the  male  lungfish  is  truly  admirable,  for  he 
stays  in  the  nest  the  whole  time,  from  the  moment  the  eggs  are 
laid  till  the  young  are  ready  to  leave  the  nest,  a period  of  about 
seven  weeks.  . . . 

"...  Curiously  enough,  there  is  another  fish  in  these  swamps 
which  has  very  similar  nesting  habits  to  the  lungfish.  I refer  to 
the  eel,  mentioned  before  as  being  able  to  pass  the  dry  season  in 
the  mud  like  Lepidosiren.  In  this  species  the  nests  are  also  burrows 
in  the  mud,  though  not  lined  with  water- weeds,  and  the  male  keeps 
guard  over  the  developing  eggs. 

“ The  two  classes  of  animals  which  force  themselves  most  upon 
the  notice  of  a new-comer  in  the  Chaco,  be  he  naturalist  or  no,  have 
not  yet  been  referred  to.  These  are  the  frogs  and  the  insects.  At 
home  the  common  frog  and  toad  exhaust  the  species  of  this  class  of 
animal  with  which  one  is  likely  to  meet,  and  one  thinks  of  them  as 
retiring  animals,  and  not  often  seen  and  seldom  heard.  On  a wet 
night  in  the  Chaco  the  noise  made  by  the  frogs  is  deafening. 
There  are  about  four-and-twenty  species  of  them,  and  each  one  seems 
to  have  a distinctive  cry  of  its  own.  Some  of  them  have  curious 
breeding  habits.  One  species  lays  its  eggs  immediately  after  a 
shower  of  rain  in  quite  temporary  pools.  These  eggs  go  through 
their  development  very  quickly,  hatching  within  twenty-four  hours 
after  they  are  laid.  Some  of  the  climbing  tree-frogs  are  very 
handsome,  and  make  most  interesting  nests,  suspended  from  bushes 
overhanging  pools.  In  one  case  ( Phyllomedusa  sauvagu ),  when  the 
frog  is  about  to  lay  its  eggs,  it  crawls  out  on  to  a suitable  branch, 
and  pulling  a number  of  leaves  together,  proceeds  to  cement  them 
in  this  position  by  means  of  a plug  of  jelly,  formed  by  a mass  of 
gelatinous  egg-cases  which  are  laid  without  any  eggs  in  them.  The 
plug  so  made  forms  the  floor  of  the  nest,  the  leaves  to  which  it  is 
stuck  the  sides  ; the  eggs  are  then  laid  into  the  chamber  so  formed, 
and  finally  another  jelly  plug  is  added  as  a roof  to  the  whole 
structure.  If  such  a nest  is  opened  at  the  right  time,  it  is  found  to 
be  full  of  a seething  mass  of  little  tadpoles,  wriggling  about  in  a 
sort  of  soup  formed  by  the  liquefaction  of  the  gelatinous  egg-cases, 
the  whole  held  in  position  by  the  plug  at  the  bottom.  This  plug 

315 


APPENDIX  II 


gradually  softens  under  the  influence  of  the  fluid  above  it,  and  if  a 
nest  in  this  condition  is  watched,  one  presently  sees  a thick  viscid 
drop  forming,  and  soon  this  falls  off  into  the  water  of  the  pool 
beneath,  perhaps  carrying  with  it  a tadpole.  Soon  another  drop 
forms,  then  they  come  more  quickly,  and  now  the  whole  semi-fluid 
contents  of  the  nest  are  falling  in  a steady  drip  into  the  water,  each 
drop  carrying  with  it  a number  of  wriggling  tadpoles.  In  one  nest 
in  which  I watched  the  whole  process  from  start  to  finish,  over 
three  hundred  tadpoles  fell  out  of  the  nest  into  the  water  beneath 
in  forty-five  minutes. 

“ Of  the  insects,  the  locusts,  ants,  and  mosquitos  are  perhaps 
the  most  striking.  A swarm  of  locusts  is  a marvellous  sight.  At 
first  one  sees  apparently  a long  dark  cloud  of  a peculiar  reddish 
colour  appearing  above  the  horizon,  and  if  it  is  one’s  first  experience, 
one  thinks  one  is  in  for  a storm.  However,  in  an  hour  or  so  the 
cloud  is  overhead,  and  has  resolved  itself  into  countless  millions  of 
locusts,  so  that  the  sky  is  darkened  with  them,  and  the  air  full  of 
the  whirring  of  their  wings.  They  settle  on  the  trees,  and  in  a 
few  hours  entirely  strip  them  of  leaves. 

“ There  are  many  different  species  of  ant,  the  most  remarkable, 
perhaps,  being  the  saiiba,  or  leaf-cutting  ant.  As  one  goes  through 
the  forest  one  will  frequently  come  across  what  looks  like  a column 
of  small  leaves  on  the  march.  Closer  examination  shows  that  this 
appearance  is  caused  by  two  columns  of  ants  hurrying  along  a well- 
beaten  track.  Every  ant  going  in  the  one  direction  is  carrying 
upright  in  its  jaws  a circular  piece  of  leaf  about  as  large  as  a 
sixpence,  while  all  the  ants  going  in  the  other  direction  are  empty- 
handed.  If  we  follow  up  this  path  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
empty-handed  ants  are  going,  we  come  at  last — though  not  for 
seventy  or  eighty  yards — to  a tree  at  which  it  stops.  At  the  foot 
of  the  tree  one  sees  a thick  pile  of  little  circular  pieces  of  leaf  such 
as  the  ants  are  carrying,  and  it  is  evident  that  they  are  going  back- 
wards and  forwards  from  the  nest  bearing  off  these  leafy  discs. 
Up  in  the  tree  one  sees  other  ants  of  the  same  species  busy  cutting 
out  new  pieces  of  leaf,  which  fall  in  quite  a continuous  shower  to 
the  ground  beneath.  If  we  follow  up  the  ants’  path  in  the  other 
direction,  we  see  it  leads  into  a great,  low  mound,  the  largest  being 
thirty  or  forty  yards  in  circumference  and  two  feet  high.  This 
immense  mound  is  formed  entirely  by  minute  granules  of  earth 
brought  up  from  the  enormous  system  of  underground  passages 
of  the  ant.  Numerous  other  paths  lead  into  it,  the  main  roads 

316 


APPENDIX  II 


branching  out  in  all  directions,  each  branch  ending  at  last  at  the 
foot  of  a tree.  All  the  paths  are  trodden  quite  hard  and  smooth 
by  the  millions  of  little  feet,  and  they  look  like  cart -wheel  tracks. 

“ It  is  now  known  that  the  saiiba  ant  takes  the  fragments  of 
leaves  which  it  collects  in  this  way  into  its  subterranean  nest,  and 
uses  them  to  grow  a fungus  on,  which  provides  food  for  the  ant. 

“ This  ant  seems  to  work  by  night  as  well  as  by  day — at  least,  I 
have  seen  them  by  the  light  of  a lantern  several  hours  after  sunset 
just  as  busy  as  during  the  daytime. 

“ The  other  insects  mentioned,  the  mosquitos,  are  quite  in- 
describable. They  are,  indeed,  the  most  important  of  all  the 
circumstances  which  condition  one’s  daily  life  in  the  Chaco.  If 
the  mosquitos  are  quiet,  life  is  enjoyable;  if  they  are  bad,  it  is 
not  worth  living  after  sunset.  Their  numbers  and  vindictiveness 
are  almost  incredible.  Personal  exjuerience  is  necessary  to  convince 
one  how  easily  they  can  and  do  get  through  a flannel  coat  and 
shirt.  If  one  goes  out  anywhere  after  dark,  or  in  swampy  places 
even  in  the  daytime,  one’s  shoulders  are  riddled  with  their  bites, 
and  the  same  with  every  part  of  the  body  where  one’s  clothes 
touch  ; and  as  to  one’s  hands  and  face,  who  can  describe  the  misery 
of  it  ? Horses  suffer  terribly  too,  and  at  the  end  of  the  summer 
there  is  scarcely  one  in  ten  fit  to  be  ridden.  If,  w'hen  travelling  at 
night,  one  seeks  to  encourage  one’s  dejected  horse  with  a pat  on 
the  neck,  one  finds  one’s  hand  covered  with  blood  squashed  out  of 
the  bodies  of  gorged  mosquitos  packed  almost  as  closely  as  there 
is  room  for  them.” 


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APPENDIX  III 


LANGUAGE 


“ Lengua  ” is  probably  a Guarani  nickname  given  to  the  Indians, 
who  were  known  as  “ Mascoy  ” in  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
should  be  properly  termed  “ Lengua- Mascoy,”  or  “Lengua- 
Machicuy.”  The  tribes  known  as  Lengua,  Angaite,  Mascoy,  Sana- 
pana,  Guana,  according  to  Dr.  Lafone-Quevedo,  the  great  authority 
on  Chaco  languages,  belong  to  the  Machicuy  stock,  being  a branch 
of  the  great  Nu-Arwak  group,  which  is  widely  spread  over  the  centre 
of  South  America,  extending  from  Paraguay  to  the  West  Indies, 
where  they  are  found  mixed  up  with  the  Caribbic  stock.  Senor 
Guido  Boggiani,  in  his  monograph  on  the  Paiyagua  and  Machicuy 
Indians,  include  the  Towothli  and  Suhin  tribes  with  the  Lengua, 
but  I think  these  will  be  found  to  belong  to  the  Guaicuru  stock. 

Lengua  is  not  used  by  the  Indians  to  describe  themselves,  but 
they  call  themselves  by  various  clan  terms : Kyoinawatsam  (people 
of  the  river),  Kyoinathla  (people  of  the  palm-tree),  Kyoinithma 
(people  of  the  forest),  Paisiapto  (black-food),  etc. 

The  two  most  important  facts  of  the  language  are  : («)  That  the 
pronominal  inflections  are  prefixed  to  the  noun  or  verb,  and  (/;)  that 
they  are  multiform  in  inflection — e.g.  : 


e-mik 

ne-thlit 


= my  hand. 
= my  waist. 


ah-aktik  = my  eye. 

sik-tahanama  = my  bed. 

sel-nakta  = my  goods 

sey-ispo  = my  cigar. 


ik-thlingkyi  = I go. 

e-wanchi  = I am  able, 

el-anaiyi  = I make, 

ey-apaschi  = I send. 


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APPENDIX  III 


The  verbs  are  inflected  for  modification  by  affixes — e.g.  : 


yintim-kyi 

y intim-  akth  leyi 

yintim-anteyi 

yintim-akme 

yintim-aha 

yinto-waiyi 

yinto-wukme 

Etc. 


= to  take,  lead,  as  horse  or  child. 

= to  take  there,  or  again. 

= to  lead  here. 

= to  lead  in  this  direction  for  first  time. 
= to  lead  about  from  place  to  place. 

= to  lead  from  ...  to  this  place. 

= to  lead  to  a distant  place. 


A very  important  grammatical  distinction  exists,  not  coincident 
with  sex.  It  is  difficult  to  trace  a logical  reason  for  this  division  of 
words  : Sun  is  feminine ; moon,  masculine  ; the  generic  words  for 
animal,  bird,  fish,  serpent,  tree,  are  feminine  ; yet  some  of  the 
specific  names  are  masculine — e.g.,  the  ciervo  is  feminine,  the 
Brazilian  brocket  and  all  other  deer  are  masculine. 

Coming  to  sex,  one  finds,  what  is  common  to  the  family  group,  a 
special  language  for  the  women.  To  address  or  speak  of  a woman 
different  prefixes  (and  in  some  cases  distinct  words)  have  to  be 
used — e.g. : 

kato  ikto  = eat  thy  food  (addressing  a woman), 
ito  apto  = eat  thy  food  (addressing  a man). 

Relationship  is  traced  on  the  female  side  ; and  terms  “ uncle,” 
“aunt,”  “ niece,”  etc.,  are  very  distinct — e.g. ; 

apai  = my  mother’s  brother, 
eha  = my  father’s  brother. 


Sentences  are  very  simple.  The  verb  precedes  the  noun,  whether 
subject  or  object.  With  neuter  verbs  the  subject  is  expressed, 
with  active  verbs  the  object ; and  sometimes  the  subject  is  expressed 
when  there  is  a necessity. 

To  make  quite  certain  of  a sentence,  e.g.,  “ The  tiger  killed  the 
man,”  it  is  necessary  to  say,  “ The  man  is  killed  [neuter  verb]  ; 
the  tiger’s  killing  ” (Abmatneyi  enthlit,  niptana  apkyakhe).  In 
an  ordinary  narrative  the  tiger  will  have  formed  the  subject,  and 
the  simple  statement,  “ (He)  killed  the  man,”  would  be  sufficiently 
clear. 

Verbs  are  inflected  to  denote  present,  past,  and  future  tenses. 
The  present  tense  refers  to  temporary  action,  while  the  past  tense 
indicates  that  which  is  permanent,  habitual,  or  customary. 

319 


APPENDIX  III 


An  interesting  inflection,  denoting  a kind  of  “ middle  ” voice, 
exists,  which  exjwesses  an  action  done  to  or  for  another — e.g.  : 

Iglikyik  apawa  = I take  off  my  own  blanket. 
Iglikkischik  apawa  = I take  off  his  blanket. 

The  language  abounds  in  interjections,  and  one  has  to  be  an 
adept  at  animals’  cries  to  express  fully  a hunting  story. 

Some  interesting  idioms  might  be  cited  : The  word  to  “ kill  ” 
expresses  also  overcome,  bothered,  or  tormented  with,  etc.  : 

tiyin-inkyakhak  = sleepy,  killed  with  sleep, 
etin-inkyakhak  = tormented  with  smoke, 
yiam-apkyakhak  = perished  with  south  wind,  cold, 
maik-inkyakhak  = killed  with  hunger,  hungry, 
him-inkyakhak  = killed  with  sun,  thirsty. 

The  verbs  “ hear  ” and  “ see  ” have  some  interesting  uses  : 

matnaak  ikpauma  = I didn’t  hear  the  odour — i.e.,  I did 

not  smell. 

iglingangko  ikmasche  = I heard  the  pain — i.e.,  I felt, 
igwitak  ningmasclie  = I saw  the  sickness — i.e.,  I was  sick, 
kotak  etkya  = she  saw  no  child — i.e.,  barren. 

The  “ wathwuk,”  or  inside,  is  the  seat  of  emotion  : 

kilkyitamkyi  abwathwuk  = to  round  up  the  inside — i.e.,  to 

think. 

paihekthleyi  abwathwuk  = the  inside  spread  out — i.e.,  pleasure, 
tiyikme  abwathwuk  = the  inside  falls — i.e.,  grief, 
liowu  abwathwuk  = the  inside  loosens — i.e.,  love,  trust. 

The  “inkyinyik,”  or  chest,  seems  to  be  the  individuality : 

lokyik  inkyinyik  = angry  chest  = to  recall,  return  for. 
thlingaikha  inkyinyik  = moving  chest  = intense  agony, 
gaihek  inkyinyik  = hard  chest  = to  live,  be  courageous, 
kyjtsipkyik  inkyinyik  = dead  chest  = to  love,  covet,  desire. 

The  people  are  very  conservative,  and  prefer  to  coin  new  names 
rather  than  introduce  a foreign  word.  Some  words  from  the 
Spanish  and  Guarani,  however,  have  crept  in — e.g.,  “ waitkya  ” and 
“ lawa,”  from  Spanish  “vaca,”  “clavo”;  “ kaa  ” is  the  Guarani 

320 


APPENDIX  III 


“ caa.”  The  augmentative  particles  “ yam  ” and  “ yat  ” are  prefixed 
to  nouns  to  form  new  words — e.g.  : 

paat  = grass.  yampaat  = sugar-cane, 

nipkyesik  = sheep.  yatnipkyesik  = goat. 

Ho  = like,  is  frequently  used  in  the  same  manner  : 

athlawa  = a palm-leaf.  ho-athlawa  = an  accordian. 

The  language  is  rich  touching  their  own  life,  and  especially 
verbs  of  movement — coming  and  going — as  : to  go  away,  to  go 
for  first  time,  to  go  in  a given  direction,  to  go  for  a purpose, 
to  go  part  of  the  way,  to  go  back,  to  go  quickly,  to  go  home, 
to  go  to  examine,  etc.  Some  verbs  are  peculiar  to  the  language — 
eg.,  mangkathneyi  = to  go  and  ask  food  for  a friend,  to  beg  for 
another;  mangkangwaktamo  = to  arrive  just  in  time.  Another 
verb  expresses  the  idea  of  a man  following  in  the  wake  of  a camp 
fire  to  pick  up  any  salvage  ; another  verb  expresses  the  idea  of 
a warning — e.g.,  a hen  in  a fit  suggests  the  idea  that,  unless  you 
kill  the  hen,  you  will  die. 

In  general  style  the  language  is  vivid,  comprising  sharp,  short, 
terse  sentences  The  speaker’s  voice  rises  and  falls  in  rhythmic 
cadence,  words  and  sentences  are  carefully  chosen  in  narrating, 
and,  for  euphony,  words  are  contracted  and  accents  changed  so 
as  to  give  to  the  whole  a pleasant  rhythmic  sound.  Nearly  ten 
thousand  words  are  collected  in  the  dictionary,  which  includes  the 
modifications  of  the  root  verbs  and  augmentative  forms  of  nouns. 


321 


x 


APPENDIX  IV 


OUTSIDE  TESTIMONY 

The  following  are  extracts  from  unsolicited  letters  sent  to  the 
Buenos  Ayres  Standard  and  to  the  Secretary  of  the  South  American 
Missionary  Society  by  a few  who  have  visited  the  Paraguayan 
Chaco  Mission  : 

“ To  the  Editor  of  the  Buenos  Ayres  ‘Standard.’ 

“June  5,  1892. 

“Sir, — Having  to  spend  a few  days  in  Villa  Concepcion  waiting 
for  the  next  steamer,  we  decided  to  employ  our  time  in  visiting 
the  station  of  the  South  American  Missionary  Society,  in  the 
Paraguayan  Chaco.  The  station  is  little  known,  I believe,  and  only 
very  few  white  people  have  ever  visited  it.  It  might  therefore 
be  of  some  interest  to  your  readers  to  hear  something  about  what 
we  saw  and  heard  there. 

“ Thlagnasinkinmith,  the  Indian  name  of  the  station,  lies  about 
twelve  leagues  to  the  west  of  the  River  Paraguay,  in  the  interior 
of  the  Chaco  and  on  the  Rio  Verde.  Of  recent  creation,  the  place 
has  rapidly  developed  under  the  able  and  energetic  management 
of  Mr.  W.  Grubb,  and  it  is  already  widely  known  amongst  the 
Chaco  Indians,  who  consider  it  one  of  their  largest  settlements.  . . . 

“ . . . We  found  Mr.  Grubb  quite  alone  with  his  Indians,  who 
appeared  rather  disagreeably  surprised  at  first,  for  they  always  fear 
the  intrusion  of  white  people  into  their  domains.  However,  when 
they  saw  that  Mr.  Grubb  received  us  in  a most  friendly  manner, 
they  at  once  concluded  that  we  were  the  new  missionaries  who  are 
expected  from  England,  and  received  us  with  expressions  of  friend- 
ship. Quite  a village  is  rising  round  the  station  house.  Mr.  Grubb 
informed  us  that  as  many  as  six  to  seven  hundred  Indians  come  to 

322 


APPENDIX  IV 


stay  there  sometimes,  until  he  has  to  send  them  away,  so  as  to 
make  room  for  others  to  come.  . . . 

“ By  encouraging  these  settlements,  and  showing  the  Indians 
how  to  go  to  work,  the  immense  deserts  of  the  Chaco  will  be 
studded  little  by  little  by  Indian  villages,  and  to  my  mind  Mr. 
Grubb’s  efforts  will  go  much  further  to  open  and  civilize  the  Chaco 
than  European  colonization,  as  it  has  been  undertaken  until  now. 
They  are  beginning  to  enter  into  Mr.  Grubb’s  ideas,  and  Thlagna- 
sinkinmith  is  already  considered  by  them  as  national  property.  . . 

“ I may  add  the  hope  that  the  Anglo-Paraguayan  Land  Com- 
pany will  do  more  to  assist  the  courageous  efforts  of  Mr.  Grubb’s 
Mission,  and  that  he  may  also  find  support  for  his  work  from  other 
quarters.  Thus  he  will  be  enabled  to  become  in  reality  the 
‘ Pacificador  del  Chaco,’  a title  which  was  given  to  him  with  much 
foresight  by  the  Paraguayan  Government. 

“ I am,  sir, 

“Arnold  H.  Schoch, 

“Belgian  Consul  at  Asuncion,  Paraguay.” 

“ To  His  Excellency  the  President  of  the  Republic,  Asuncion. 

“ Villa  Concepcion, 

“ December  30,  1893. 

“ Knowing  the  interest  your  Excellency  takes  in  the  welfare  and 
advancement  of  the  Chaco,  I venture  to  inform  you  that  I have 
this  day  returned  from  an  expedition  to  its  interior  to  survey  and 
measure  the  boundaries  for  a Mission  station  of  the  South  American 
Missionary  Society,  from  which,  in  future,  its  missionaries  will  work 
for  the  civilization  and  evangelisation  of  the  Chaco  Indians  ; and  am 
surprised  at  the  security  and  tranquillity  with  which  we  can  now 
travel  among  them,  thanks  to  the  effective  measures  taken  by  the 
missionaries  of  the  South  American  Missionary  Society  to  Christianise 
those  savages.  . . . To-day  the  spirit  of  hostility  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared. I have  made  my  present  survey  with  Indian  assistance, 
and  have  not  carried  a single  firearm.  At  night  we  slept  tranquilly, 
at  whatever  spot  our  labour  for  the  day  had  ceased,  no  watch  being 
set,  and  several  times  in  the  vicinity  of  strange  Indians  whom  we 
met  on  the  road.  We  sought  the  villages  instead  of  avoiding  them 
as  formerly.  . . . 

“ I remain,  your  Excellency’s  obedient  servant, 

(Signed)  “Pedro  A.  Freund, 

“ Public  Land  Surveyor.” 


323 


APPENDIX  IV 


“ To  the  Secretary  of  the  South  American  Mission  . 

“ Asuncion,  Paraguay, 

“ November  27,  1894. 

“ I had  occasion  to  come  to  Paraguay  on  business,  and  being 
desirous  of  seeing  something  of  the  interior  of  the  Chaco,  I gladly 
accepted  the  invitation  of  the  missionaries  sent  out  by  the  South 
American  Mission  to  accompany  them  to  the  interior.  Let  me  bear 
testimony  to  the  work  these  young  fellows  are  doing.  For  nine 
months  of  the  year  the  interior  of  the  Chaco  is  one  vast  swamp,  as 
far  as  it  is  known  at  present.  During  a two  hundred  mile  l’ide, 
including  the  return  journey,  over  a track  chosen  by  the  Indians  as 
being  the  highest  and  driest,  I can  safely  say  that  one  hundred  and 
eighty  miles  lay  through  water,  and  this  in  the  middle  of  Novem- 
ber, w'ith  the  sun  almost  vertical.  Mr.  Grubb  has  been  an  equal 
distance  farther  west  from  the  point  I reached,  and  found  no 
variation  in  the  camps.  Through  these  tropical  swamps  your 
missionaries  plod  steadily  on,  leading  such  a life  as  I have  only 
seen  equalled  by  that  of  the  hardiest  pioneers,  one  moment 
scorched  by  the  tropical  sun,  the  next  drenched  to  the  skin  by 
torrential  rains,  sleeping  where  nightfall  finds  them,  at  the  edge 
of  a swamp,  and  often  in  soaking  wet  clothes.  They  should  have 
waterproof  sleeping-bags  in  which  to  shelter  themselves  from  the 
rain,  which  here  comes  down  like  a waterspout.  Even  a cowboy  in 
North  America  is  better  protected  from  the  elements  than  they. 
Perpetual  journeys  to  and  from  the  interior,  with  the  coast  of  the 
Paraguay  River  as  a base,  must  be  undertaken,  to  keep  the  mis- 
sionary staff  in  the  bare  necessaries  of  life,  and  only  very  small 
loads  can  be  taken.  Yet  I find  these  men  driving  bullock-teams 
themselves,  walking  beside  the  team  up  to  their  waists  in  water, 
and  working  as  no  colonial  bullock-driver  would  work  for  one  pound 
per  day.  At  the  end  of  a journey,  which  usually  lasts  a week,  the 
only  shelter  awaiting  these  men  is  a rough  palm-log  house  with  one 
small  room  and  a veranda — nothing  more — and  this  room  serves 
as  store  and  affords  all  the  privacy  available. 

“ Last,  but  not  least,  may  I point  out  the  never-ceasing  plague 
of  insect  life  ? The  tropical  swamps  breed  these  pests  in  opaque 
clouds.  Mosquitos  and  gadflies  of  many  varieties,  one  kind  of 
gadfly  being  at  least  an  inch  long,  also  ticks,  and  a small  fly  about 
the  size  of  a grain  of  dust,  wfith  a venom  which  is  in  the  inverse 

324 


APPENDIX  IV 


ratio  of  its  size.  On  the  dry  land  is  found  the  homely  insect  called 
the  ‘ jigger/  which  seeks  a congenial  resting-place  in  your  feet,  and 
more  particularly  under  the  nail  of  your  big  toe. 

“ The  Indians  themselves  are  undoubtedly  a fine  race.  But, 
decked  everywhere  with  feathers,  painted  on  the  face  and  breast, 
their  ears  distorted  with  blocks  of  wood  over  an  inch  in  diameter, 
forced  through  the  lobe  of  the  ear  until  only  a thin  piece  of  skin 
surrounds  the  wood,  wearing  necklaces  of  teeth  or  beads,  together 
with  a dark  copper-coloured,  almost  naked  body,  they  make  a 
picture  which  represents  the  typical  savage.  These  Indians  were 
held  in  terror  by  the  Paraguayans  until  the  advent  of  your  mis- 
sionaries, and  to  this  day  the  Paraguayans  will  not  venture  more 
than  a few  miles  into  the  Chaco.  Yet  both  Mr.  Pride  and  Mr. 
Grubb  have  lived  a year  at  a time  alone  among  the  Indians  without 
a spell,  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  the  outside  world, 
except  for  the  arrival  of  the  periodical  bullock-dray.  But  it  is 
invidious  to  mention  names  where  all  are  imbued  with  the  same 
enthusiasm.  I may  say  that  I have  seen  Missions  in  many  parts 
of  the  world,  including  those  to  the  North  American  Indians  and 
that  of  the  Danes  to  the  Esquimaux  on  the  west  coast  of  Green- 
land, which  I may  take  as  fair  samples  of  rough  work  ; yet  I do 
not  hesitate  to  say  that  as  a record  of  hard,  patient,  rough,  en- 
during work,  this  Mission  to  the  Chaco  Indians  has  only  been 
equalled  by  that  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  when  they  made  their  noble 
effort  to  Christianise  Paraguay.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered 
that  even  the  Jesuits  tried  to  evangelise  the  Chaco,  but  gave  it  up, 
as  the  obstacles  were  so  enormous. 

“ Of  the  religious  part  of  the  work  I say  nothing,  because  I am 
not  qualified  to  judge  ; but  a religion  which  produces  such  men 
and  such  self-denying  work  deserves  to  be  crowned  with  success, 
and  I heartily  hope  the  Mission  may  succeed. 

“ This  testimony  from  a man  avowedly  out  of  all  sympathy  with 
proselytizing  effort  may  provide  your  supporters  with  some  informa- 
tion as  to  the  real  nature  of  the  work  undertaken  by  your  missionaries 
here,  which  appears  to  be  little  known,  the  more  especially  as  they, 
like  the  plucky  young  fellows  they  are,  seem  to  have  concealed  the 
real  hardships  they  endure. 

“Livingstone  Learmonth.” 


325 


APPENDIX  IV 


Extract  from  Bishop  Every  s First  Report. 

“ In  conclusion,  I may  say  that  I have  been  greatly  cheered  and 
pleased  by  my  visit  to  the  Chaco  Mission.  Coming  with  a perfectly 
open  mind  and  by  no  means  predisposed  to  take  a bright  view  of 
the  work,  alter  careful  observation  and  questioning  I have  been 
convinced,  alike  by  all  that  I have  seen  and  heard,  that  a very  real 
work  for  God  has  been  done,  that  there  are  no  serious  defects,  and 
that  there  are  many  signs,  such  as  the  changing  of  native  customs 
and  leavening  of  native  opinion  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Mission, 
which  point  to  a prosperous  development  in  the  future. 

“E.  F.,  Falkland  Isles. 

" November  10,  1902.” 


Testimony  from  a Tourist.  To  the  Secretary  of  the  South  American 
Missionary  Society. 

“ The  outside  world  cannot  know  what  a herculean  effort  it 
must  have  been  to  establish  this  Mission,  and  what  a colossal 
business  it  is  to  keep  it  up.  The  missionaries  have  gathered 
around  them  a village  consisting  of  some  two  hundred  Indians. 
This  does  not  seem  big,  but  you  must  realize  that  the  Indians’  life 
is  hunting,  and  therefore  they  cannot  live  in  large  communities, 
and,  in  fact,  twenty  to  thirty  is  a large  village.  Before  I arrived  in 
South  America  I knew  no  one  connected  with  the  Mission,  and, 
having  nothing  to  do  with  missionary  work,  my  criticism  is  abso- 
lutely that  of  an  outsider.  They  really  do  seem  to  be  building 
up  and  educating  the  Indian  on  such  excellent  lines  that  I firmly 
believe  it  will  prove  of  a permanent  character,  and  eventually 
become  a self-governing  body.  When  one  thinks  that  but  ten 
years  ago  it  was  dangerous  to  one’s  life  to  venture  into  the  Chaco, 
whilst  now  there  are  numerous  estancias  on  the  border,  and  one 
can  now  go  for  a hundred  and  more  miles  into  the  interior  with 
comparative  safety,  it  shows  that  the  missionaries  have  got  the 
‘ thin  edge  of  the  wedge  ’ well  thrust  in. 

“ I wish  that  this  could  be  brought  more  before  the  public. 
These  men  and  women  are  working  amongst  the  greatest  hard- 
ships ; I believe  they  all  suffer  from  fever ; the  very  water  they 
drink  is  swamp-water  ; the  houses  they  live  in  are  but  log  huts 
made  of  palm-trees.  They  are  making  savages  into  reasonable, 

326 


APPENDIX  IV 


peace-abiding  people,  and,  what  touches  the  commercial  world 
more,  they  are  making  what  was  once  considered  a piece  of  waste 
land,  the  size  of  England  and  Scotland,  of  real  commercial  value. 
Landowners  in  the  Paraguayan  Chaco  owe  all  to  this  English 
Mission,  and  especially  to  Mr.  W.  B.  Grubb,  the  pioneer  and  back- 
bone of  the  whole  undertaking. 

“J.  F.  J.  Weiss. 

“ November , 1908.” 


Testimony  from  a Chaco  Landowner.  To  the  Secretary  of  the 
South  American  Missionary  Society. 

“ In  spite  of  many  reverses,  and  notwithstanding  the  difficulties 
that  beset  him,  Mr.  Grubb  successfully  realized  his  undertaking. 
Working  from  his  base  at  the  Riacho  Negro  opposite  the  town  of 
Villa  Concepcion,  he  established  three  inland  stores,  where  the 
Chaco  tribes  were  able  to  obtain  clothing  and  other  requirements 
in  exchange  for  their  produce.  By  this  and  other  means  the 
Lengua  Indians  have  been  reclaimed  from  their  nomadic  life,  and 
many  of  them  are  now  engaged  in  pastoral  and  industrial  pursuits. 
This  work  still  proceeds,  and  under  the  spiritual  and  educational 
guidance  of  the  Mission  a young  generation  is  springing  up 
on  a field  where  they  are  enabled  to  lead  a self-supporting  and 
domesticated  life.  . . . 

“ . . . I wish  to  avail  myself  of  this  letter  to  express  my  testi- 
mony to  the  work  of  Mr.  Grubb  and  his  fellow-labourers  in  the 
Paraguayan  Chaco.  They  have  had  to  undergo  hardships  and  to 
face  obstacles  and  discouragement  such  as  probably  no  material 
gain  would  have  inspired  men  to  encounter  and  surmount.  My 
intimate  connection  with  Mr.  Grubb  during  the  past  four  years, 
dealing  at  times  with  matters  which  we  were  called  upon  to  discuss 
from  opposed  standpoints,  has  produced  in  me  the  most  unalterable 
esteem  and  respect  for  him. 

“ I remain,  dear  sir, 

“ Yours  faithfully, 

“ Herbert  Gibson. 

September , 1909P 


327 


INDEX 

[For  plants  and  animals,  see  Appendix  II.,  Parts  I.  and  II  ] 


Abiponi,  viii,  217 
Agar,  Dr.,  x,  310 
Agriculture,  77 
A/garoba,  103 
Alligator,  82 
Amulets,  138 
Ancestors,  Lengua,  51 
Andrew,  279 
Anklets,  72 
Ant-eater,  86,  312 
Antonio,  284 

Aphangak,  118,  120,  123,  125,  130 
Arrows,  251 

Bank,  296 
Beetle,  132,  155 
,,  creation,  114 
Bernau,  E.  G.,  298 
Birds,  hunting,  83 
Blanket,  native,  69 
Boggiani,  22,  304 
Buenos  Ayres,  268 
Burial  rites,  160,  171,  256 

Cachemaille,  E.  P.,  278 
C'araquata , 68,  95 
Cattle,  245,  250 
Chaco,  49 

Characteristics,  195 
Charqui,  39 
Chieftainship,  45 
Church,  299 
Cities  of  dead,  51 
Climate,  306 
Compass,  100 
Cotton,  68 
Creation,  114 
Creveaux,  Dr.,  22,  303 


Dances,  183,  185 
Death -scenes,  160,  171 
Deceit,  239 
Deer,  86 
Diary  sticks,  76 

Dobrizhoffer,  viii,  49,  51,  139,  145, 
163,  217 
Dogs,  62 

Dollar,  Paraguayan,  296 
Dreams,  126,  167 
Drums,  75 
Drunkenness,  239 
Dwellings,  56 
Dyes,  67 

Ear  discs,  72 
Engravings,  75 
Enmakthlawaia,  296 
Estancia , 294 
Etiquette,  187 
Every,  Bishop,  325 
Expeditions,  301 
Explorers,  301 

Falkland  Isles,  Bishops  of,  ix,  24 

Falsehood,  206 

Farrow,  G.  R.,  296 

Feasts,  102,  177 

Fire-sticks,  74 

Fire,  tradition  of,  97 

Fishing,  80,  83 

Fish-traps,  81 

Freund,  P.  A.,  323 

Gardiner,  Allen,  304 
Geology,  305 
Gibson,  H.,  327 
Gourds,  74 
328 


INDEX 


Government,  Paraguayan,  298 
Guarani,  19,  105,  125 

Henricksen,  A.,  18,  31 
Hides,  70 
Hockey,  103 
Honesty,  210 
Horse-spirit,  142 
Hospital,  British,  268 
,,  Indian,  298 
House-building,  78 
Humour,  197 
Hunt,  R.  J.,  ix,  265,  279 
Hunting,  66 

Ibareta,  22,  24,  304 
Imlah,  54 
Incas,  50,  53,  141 
Infanticide,  142,  233 
Insects,  63,  309,  315 
Instruments,  musical,  75 

Jabiru,  84 
Jaguar,  87 
Jesuits,  230,  303 
Judgment,  237 

Keamapsithyo.  See  Philip 
Kerr,  Professor  Graham,  x,  247, 
274,  301,  305 

Kilyikhama,  115,  127,  134,  139, 
148,  153,  161 
Kindness,  211 
Kisapang,  222,  266 
Knives,  75 
Kyitkuk-paisiam,  44 

Language,  196,  241,  318 
Learmonth,  L.,  324 
Lepidosiren,  81,  314 
Lindsay,  Dr.,  278 
Liquors,  46,  76,  204 
Lozano,  Padre,  49 

Machicuy,  318 
Madness,  205,  270 
Mandioca,  77 
Manuel,  263,  265 
-'Marriage,  97,  142,  214 
Mascoy,  318 

Mechi,  23,  102,  239,  264,  267 
Milky  Way,  139,  163 
Mimics,  85 
Mirages,  140 


Monte  Lindo,  252 
Moon,  139 
Morals,  204 
Mosquito,  228,  317 
Mourning,  169 
Mudfish,  81,  314 
Murder,  269 
Mutilation,  162 

Neantamama,  37,  42 
Netting,  68 

O’Connor,  Dr.,  viii,  268 
Orejones,  50,  72 
Origin  of  Leuguas,  49,  141 
Ornaments,  70 

Pacificator,  ix 
Paisiamyalwa,  248,  264 
Palms,  307 
Palo  santo,  64,  308 
Paraguay,  36 
Patience,  200 

Philip,  141,  225,  236,  263,  265, 
268,  281,  287 
Pigs,  86 
Pilcomayo,  302 

Pinse-apawa,  42,  46,  48,  93,  158 

Pinse-tawa,  283 

Pipes,  73 

Pleiades,  51,  139 

Poison,  44 

Poit,  53,  244,  246,  269 
Poliandry,  214 
Police,  298 
Poligamy,  214 
Population,  301 
Pottery,  72 
Pride,  A.,  x,  24 
Princess,  Inca,  51 
Punishment,  271 

Quebracho,  308  ' 

Quichuas,  49 

Ra,  1 15 

Rainbow,  51,  141 
Red  Head,  152, 154 
Rhea,  85,  126 

Riacho  Fernandez,  31,  36  123 

Sanderson,  W.,  296 
Scandal,  208 
Scenery,  55  59,  307 


INDEX 


Schmidt,  Dr.,  268 
Schocli,  A.  H.,  322 
School,  296 
Sensitive  plant,  137 
Shimield,  Archdeacon,  90 
Sickness,  241 
Signs,  76 
Smallpox,  59 
Snakes,  58,  83 
Socialism,  188 
Solis,  18 
Songs,  185 

Soul,  116.  See  Aphangak 
South  American  Missionary  Society, 
19,  278,  293 
Spinning,  66,  68 

Spirits,  see  Kilyikhania  and  Aphan- 
gak 

Stature,  301 
Stewart,  Dr.,  267 
Stirling,  Bishop,  213,  268 
Storm,  O.,  303 
Storms,  91,  104 
String,  68 
Suffering,  101 
Suhin,  68 

Superstitions,  132,  136 
Theft,  210 

Thlagnasinkinmith,  40,  43,  90,  150 


I Thlagwakhe,  164,  171 
Thrift,  193 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  26 
Tobacco,  73 
Toothli,  68,  244 
Trade,  295 
Traditions,  54 
Translations,  299 
Traps,  81 

Treves,  Sir  Frederick,  viii 
Tribes,  301 
Turner,  P.  R.,  ix 

Villa  Concepcion,  31 
Villages,  55 

Waikthlatingmangyalwa,  238,  265 
278 

War,  105,  109 
Weapons,  76 
Weaving,  66 
Weiss,  J.  F.  J.,  326 
Wischi,  257 

Witch-doctor.  See  Wizard 
Wizard,  27,  30,  47,  124,  132,  145 
161,  163,  278 
t Woods,  308 
Wool,  66,  68 

Yaghans,  139,  186 


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